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CR 61228
CLASSROOM
TRAINING
HANDBOOK
- ULTRASONIC
TESTING
Prepared
under
Contract Division
NAS 8-20185
by
Convair General
Corporation Calif.
c:
<
for NATIONAL
George
C.
Marshall AND
Space SPACE
Flight
Center
AERONAUTICS
ADMINISTRATION
N68-28790
(ACCESSION
NUMBER)
(PA_s)
..
c77, 2<Y g/
(CATEGORY)
GPO CFSTI
PRICE PRICE(S)
$ $
(HC) (MF)
PREFACE
is one be used
of
practical
of Nondestructive
who
have
completed
Instruction
is not
scheduled
at the
present
time,
this
handbook
is beneficial tightly
engaged
Testing. quantities of
involve
procurement
space vehicles and ground support the first as well as later models. failure. approach A major with These each are piece This requirement for to Nondestructive share the of the people Testing.
complete
reliability
for
assuring the
such tests
levels
NASA,
other
Government
agehcies,
of hardware for
it is committed
reexamination.
unquestionably
this
publication Quality
should
be referred Assurance
to the Laboratory,
and Reliability
for
updating C. Marshall
correction
(R-QUAL-OT),
Huntsville,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This handbookwas prepared by the Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation under NASA Contract NAS8-20185. Assistance in the form of process data, technical reviews, andtechnical advice was provided by a great many companies and individuals. The following listing is an attempt to acknowledgethis assistance andto express our gratitude for the high degree of interest exhibited by the firms, their representatives, and other individuals who, in many cases, gave considerable time and effort to the project. Aerojet-General Corp. ; Automation Industries, Inc., Sperry Products Division; AVCO Corporation; The Boeing Company; Branson Instruments, Inc. ; The Budd Co., Instruments Division; Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc.; General Electric Co. ; Grumman Aircraft; Dr's Joseph & Herbert Krautkramer; Lockheed Aircraft Corp. ; Magnaflux Corp. ; The Martin Co. (Denver); McDonnell Aircraft Corp. ; North American Aviation, Inc. ; Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Battelle Memorial Institute;
Division St. Corp. Louis of Almar-York Testing Company, Inc. Inc. Rohr Corporation; Inc. ; William Southwest C. Hitt; Pioneer Industries, Institutt Products
Research X-Ray
Laboratories,
; Uresco,
ii
CLASSROOM
TRAINING
MANUAL
ULTRASONIC CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 1 ....................................... 2 .........................................
TRANSDUCERS PROCESSES
7 .............
SELECTION
OF NDT
iii
CHAPTER TABLE
1: OF
INTRODUCTION CONTENTS
Page GENERAL PURPOSE DESCRIPTION 1. 2. Arrangement Locations ........................................ ........................................ OF CONTENTS ........................... .................................... ...................................... APPLICATIONS PHILOSOPHY CRITERIA ....................................... .................................. .................................. ................................... OF ULTRASONIC TESTING ......... ................................ 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-5
PROCEDURES OBJECTIVE
p?_ECEDiNG
PAGE
BLANK
NOT,
FILMED.
CHAPTER 100 The ment. testing, 101 The testing that the the results retest quality either 102 1. The of: a. b. Chapter Chapter 1: 2: Introduction Ultrasonic applications c. d. e. f. g. 2. The Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter S of each figures, chapter and tables consists are 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: Equipment Testing Calibrating Calibrating Comparison GENERAL complexity that and ensure Of the with PURPOSE purpose required proper of the of this test finished test; handbook technique, product; and which expense reliability testing number this of space (testing
1:
INTRODUCTION
proequip-
cedures procedures.
of space
Nondestructive
of these ultrasonic
of nondestructive is concerned,
procedures
handbook
is widely
the
by quality
and test
of the
of doubtful
or assistance
in interpretation
OF CONTENTS
in this
handbook
is presented
in a logical
sequence
and
consists
testing
principles capabilities
of contents table
for
the
chapter.
Major
paragraphs,
of contents.
103
Because of both tubing, cally variety quality 104 The
INDUSTRIAL of the metallic plastics, revealing assurance TESTING basic reason and such of dissimilar basic and
APPLICATIONS characteristics nonmetallic ceramics, materials, personnel. PHILOSOPHY for use etc.
TESTING it is used forgings, testing in material effective to test castings, composition) tools available a variety sheet, in a to
testing, as welds,
and
is capable
of economi-
subsurface
discontinuities it is one
of space accomplish
associated reliability,
materials.
NASA standards. 105 PER SONNE L that personnel and the To make keep responsible test procedures. use of new for of the ultrasonic test equipment Ouality testing, There testing and assurance be trained materials, personnel is no substitute and the highly item be must for
It is imperative qualified under equally tests knowledge. 106 When TESTING required using test must with
a technical
(specimen), continually
qualified.
of ultrasonic developments.
personnel
conducting
CRITERIA by appropriate applicable test they are before block documentation, Nondestructive philosophy required they are which dictates required articles reliability every Testing to perform that vehicle techniques. each item in assemblies, to perform are and discovered reduced and support The and criteria must article be tested sub-assemblies Using earliest must
is part
of a building
approach,
unsatisfactory resulting
possible 107
TEST
PROCEDURES procedures review available performed, correction for of past ultrasonic history, testing experience similar or checking that the test must specimen tests objective into revised are formulated on like or from similar that test analysis specimens, It is the procedures Procedures of the and are found supertest in-
responsi-
of personnel
to be incorrect
or inadequate
be brought
of responsible
incorporation
1-4
4mmmm,
108 TEST OBJECTIVE
b
l,
means
of ultrasonic
testing
is to ensure
product
reliability
by providing
recorded
image
related
to a discontinuity
in the
specimen
b. c.
nature
of the and
discontinuity unacceptable
without material
impairing in accordance
the
acceptable standards.
2.
No test
is successfully procedures
until
an evaluation
of the
test
results test
is made. objective.
Evaluation
of test
requires
understanding
of the
| |
! i
=
1-5
Paragraph 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 GENERAL ENERGY EARLY WAVE WAVEFORMS SONIC ........................................ MOTION ................................... ................................. ................................. ................................. ............................. ......................... ............................ .............................. RELATIONSHIP DISPLAY OPERATION ....................................... Delay Length Markers .................................... .................................... .................................. ............................ ............................. ...................................... TESTS
Page 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-I 0 2-I0 2-I 1 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-16 2-17 2-i and Shear Wave ............................ ........................... .................... Modes .......... 2-17 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-22 ............................ ...................... ...................... 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-25 2-25 7
GENERATION
PIEZOELECTRICITY SOUNDBEAM TIME/DISTANCE OSCILLOSCOPE OSCILLOSCOPE i. 2. 3. 4. 5. General Sweep Sweep Range Summary
REFLECTION
SOUNDBEAM SOUNDBEAM WAVE i. 2. 3. 4. TRAVEL General Comparison Shear and Transducer General Mixed Shear Surface
...............................
....................................... of Longitudinal Surface Waves Beam AND Mode Wave Wave Angles MODE
213
REFRACTION I. 2. 3. 4.
214
215
3. Typical Problem-Solving Method CRITICAL ANGLES OF REFRACTION i. 2. 3. 4. General First Second ....................................... Critical Critical Angle Angle of Critical ...............................
Calculation
2-1
TABLE Paragraph 216 217 SOUNDBEAM SOUNDBEAM I. 2. 3. 218 219 General Beam Soundbeam WAVES Wave Wave
OF
CONTENTS
(CONT) Page
........................... .............................
2-26 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-28 2-28 2-29 2-29 2-30 2-30 2-31 2-31 2-32 2-32 2-32 ............ 2-32 2-32 2-32
RAYLEIGH LAMB i. 2. 3. General Lamb Lamb General Acoustic Reflected Couplant General Surface Shape Mode Coarse
.......................................
220
COUPLANTS i. 2. 3. 4.
...................................... ....................................... Impedance Energy Selection OF TEST Roughness or Contour Conversion Grain .............................. ................................ ............................... SPECIMEN ON SOUNDBEAM
221
INFLUENCE
...................................... ............................... of Test Within Particles Specimen Test Within Test .................... ................. ............. ..................
J , . .
2-32 2-35 2-36 2-36 2-37 2-37 2-37 2-38 2-38 2-39 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9
Specimen
Specimen
222
of Discontinuity MEASURING
...................................... Generation Wave Generation Measuring Contact Tube Reflection Ultrasonic Cathode-Ray Delay Length Markers Adjustment Adjustment ............................ ......................... .......................... Test Display ................. .......................... ........................... ........................... .............................
Wave
..................................
2-2
TABLE Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figur Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
V
OF
CONTENTS(CONT) Page
2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-18 2-19 e 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4
Pulse-Echo Longitudinal
Unit, Wave
Block Mode
Diagram
2-15 2-17 2-18 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-24 2-28 2-29 2-30 ............... 2-31 2-33 2-34 2-34
............................
Longitudinal and Mode Conversion Normal Incident Beam Angle Angle 5* Incident 1st 2nd Critical Critical
_aear Wave Modes ................................. Beam ............................. ................................ ................................ ................................ Angle
Calculation
of Refracted
........................
Beam Spread in Steel Soundbeam Radiation Rayleigh Symmetrical Irregular Convex Concave Mode Dead Back Surface Surface Conversion Zone, Near Waves or Surface
Effect ........................ ............................. ............................. by Beam and Far Spread Zone ................ ...................
Velocity Angles,
_ECEDING
PAGE
.BLANK
NOT
FILMED.
CHAPTER 200 GENERAL may (16 Kc), of sound be defined may The which in air, as sound hear term notes six with octaves used
2:
PRINCIPLES
Ultrasonics ear. second per speed testing, used. 201 Sound by its second. when tion each 202 v away wave, Normal second
of frequencies
is about
suPersonic
as a synonym
In ultrasonic commonly
frequencies
to 25 million
MOTION by a vibrating (F) or the making through source. is moving the number up the body. The pitch oscillate actual which of the resultant or cycles their the about particles moves note fixed is determined in one positions in mean
vibrations
completed
in a direcslightly
WAVEFORMS waves are the measured same from trough to trough as the vibration. wavelength, The or from crest (k). to crest, The same time amount the taken disfor the
wavelength
a distance to execute
X, is the velocity
of time
of sound
(V) is given
by the
V = _,F Several types of waves are possible with sound energy traveling through solid matter.
These are longitudinal, or compression, the same direction as the motion of the the particle vibrations within are are certain so that known in a direction limits, it ripples as surface are i.e., is possible, surface cles. shortest visible similar solid with These
waves where the particle vibrations are in sound; and shear, or transverse, waves where at right the order wave may angles to the along motion the of the free sound. or It shear surface waves boundary a few partiThe of very
to a depth
of only
(pronounced of magnitude vibrations be reflected, are between bundled these light the
wavelengths this reason, waves, vibrations manner acting of light particle same surface or another
ultrasonic
or refracted. little
High-frequency absorption.
waves
propagated
an interface completely
type
soundbeams
2-5
As with in liquids
pulses
echo
of their
propagated
Longitudinal,
in solids. EARLY SONIC men TESTS tested Around to the part with a mallet. In the practical parts the and by hitting turn of this covering 1940's, deep-seated them with a mallet railroad coat looked Firestone and listening men inspected wet, of whiting. developed to W. for a tonal parts Then was the .first of basic C. Hitt by they
quality applying struck assumed pulse-echo standards and D. 204 When shown
century,
In areas early
the part
to be cracked. instrument and C. WAVE a tuning in Figure the first Erdman. GENERATION fork the air. 2-1.
for detecting
immersion
and die
produces ear
sound
waves as produce
by
compressing
to the
of the
listener
vibrations
MALLET 'LISTENER
WEAKER WAVE
Figure waves. excites from to the with the the Similarily, a transducer transducer surface piece, test front in ultrasonic (crystal) then of the with travels test the
2-1.
Generation pulse of electrical tuning may the fork. transducer, the piece. current The oil, hits soundbeam etc., in contact or
which
be water,
soundbeam
through
2-6
::
4.
\
TEST ELECTRICAL PULSE PIECE
2-2.
Ultrasonic
Wave
Generation
In actual electric" press. produces the Into water object the 206 test crystal,
a high-frequency The refers prefix "plezo" two syllables current, vibrates. and test material. on, or
applies from
pulses "pie"
Piezoelectricity the
an electric crystal
conversely, crystal
is applied
medium,
pulsed
vibrations
propagate
a speed
and elasticity
material. REFLECTION vibrations object, the crystal, be picked react they in the reflect they are same most or, way of the in most as light. soundbeam cases, into For example, same energy or base is called nature being a are repiece. the test of
SOUNDBEAM ways, strike reflections or transducer. amplified, on a cathode "A-Scan." ray This
energy. by the
(CRT) does
Ultrasonics
information
the reflection. knowledge of the flected as echoes The Figure echo from 2-3 shows
is deduced
test piece material and its from both the discontinuity discontinuity that the time is received required for
the
is received.
TEST
PIECE
TRANSDUCER
\
BACK SURFACE_
DISCONTINUITY
Figure
2-3.
Soundbeam
piece to the discontinuity and back is only 2/3rds of the time soundbeam to reach to the back surface and return. 207 The pulse tion) pips) instant The TIME/DISTANCE one-way or main from from that longer the the the distance on the CRT and bang RELATIONSHIP for the the soundbeam (soundbeam produce or base the on the distance line initial screen. measurements screen distance base are line waves screen, to travel as shown traveling two sharp on the pulse the rises appears farther
can initial
be
measured
or indications
(usually of the
oscilloscope
is received,
echo
a discontinuity
related. may
In later
discusto match
be adjusted
(as shown).
DISPLAY ultrasonic Notice actual positions contact of the test of the test setup piece and the resulting indications surface, display or pips on on the
the oscilloscope screen in relation and back surface. In the surface appeared above
the position
displayed front
discontinuity,
on the surface
screen marked
to back
superimpose just
pip "1."
pip on the
discontinuity,
without
adjustment, accom-
to the right
of the grid
marked
adjustments
2-s
_,
TIME
INITIAL PULSE
FRONT SURFACE Jl
OF PLATE II (ECHO)------71
)
PLATE IMMERSED REFLECTOR IN GLASS BEAKER PLATE
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
Figure
2-4.
Time/Distance
Measuring
------b.
I
SURFACE PULSE) FRONT (INITIAL BAC K SURFACE
I
TEST
I
SPECIMEN
FRONT SURFACE
_j
IL.
1
DISCONTINUITY
TRANSDUCER (DISCONTINUITY LOCATED ABOUT 1-1/4 INCHES WITHIN PART) OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN
Figure
2-5.
Typical
Ultrasonic
Contact
Test
Display 2-9
on the instrument,
the SWEEP
DELAY
and
the SWEEP
OPERATION
The oscilloscope displays ultrasonic similar to a television picture tube. its electron The gun. This electronic glass, is coated glows screen emits ceases screen accelerated with tube is made display. compounds sistence. trons nozzle. determined, produced filament, these operation directed may The of specially-tested screen vary in composition at the phosphor and behind similar electrons are then the from similar light to in the for glow.
indications on a cathode ray tube (CRT) Figure 2-6 shows a typical cathode ray or bottle comes with called when various light In many a phosphor brightness, bombarded of glass sizes and end constructed a material a screen at one for and
which is tube and It picture perelecThe spray are a hot means, of a pinthe time
shapes.
Phosphor
A phosphor
gun in the base on a sheet time opposite The light to form period, end bulb. a beam electrons
be considered
is prefrom size
electrons
electron
to the
filament
By electromagnetic
GLASS
TUBE
BASE CONNECTORS
V
PIPS
ELECTRON GUN
VIEWING SCREEN
Figure 2-10
2-6.
Typical
Cathode-Ray
Tube
head altered when line. the the the right. along equals
when
it strikes testing,
The
position a garden
spot
on the
screen
is line
by changing there
pointing horizontal electron fixed to the left of the time zero speed a signal vertical relays pip The
In ultrasonic
circuit
at a certain to return
it is caused screen. line may represents from zero. distance. The length the
be seen
is a measure
to move
speed
piece pip
surface
surface
time later in the sweep, between the surfaces. DELAY DELAY control either operator to the operator the that constant. material first of the to the
spacing
between
is a measure
the
line,
and the
right Figure
to shift
right
2--5 for
surface
is also surface
the pips
pulse)
the front
pip is moved
bringing between
not changed.
wish to superimpose
back surface pips on the oscilloscope grid lines so that the distance relationship on the screen is related to the actual measurements of the test piece. To do this, the horizontal trace or base line is expanded, the pips displayed. back surface pips, always has the same a. or contracted, to change the distance between relationship, in proportion, in the test piece.
The expansion or contraction of the base line is away from or toward the left side of the screen. That is,"ifthe sweep delay is set so that the start of the
_-_
TIME
---_
TIME
OSCILLOSCOPE f
SCREEN
'
1 DISCONTINUITY
BEFORE ADJUSTING
AFTER ADJUSTING
Figure SWEEP hand makes segment screen SWEEP LENGTH it possible of the LENGTH to be moved
Sweep
Delay
Adjustment pips from the delay part. makes the away The the from sweep test piece allows or toward delay in any the with the the control desired viewing the a leftalso
right-hand
pip which
appears total
to remain depth.
stationary.
control
delay with
to examine entire
segment
2-8, depth
LENGTH screen
the with
view the
of the screen
at
the
SWEEP
DELAY
and
the
SWEEP time
LENGTH screen
how por-
part whole,
at one
on the
is presented.
4.
RANGE
MARKERS example, the grid lines on the Figure oscilloscope 2-9 shows screen Range were Markers, used to aid which in
the position
of discontinuities.
are
_.P,
TIME
---IP.
TIME
BEFORE ADJUSTING
AFTER ADJUSTING
Figure set tion the the into the display just under within the front
Sweep line
Length to aid
Adjustment in immediately are back the first identifying expanded reflection feet, on-off selection of square to be 2-9, (for spacing inches, switch knob the the part permits pip, etc. the locadividing The and of the waves 11 inches the by the
of any space
discontinuity between convenient are adjustment The accurate surface is located into
part. surface
markers
or contracted
space
controlled
function)
MARKER
measurements.
is known
shown
in Figure
discontinuity
at a depth
of approximately
as determined
first
after
the
to
concern: of the
illumination, on the
brightness
is considered is kept
the brightness
spot
to form
2-13
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
MARKERS
J_jIRANGE
(SET WITH 11 SPACES FROM FRONT TO BACK SURFACE PIPS)
Figure minimum adjust the the determines sweep and The raises desired line. instruments instrument. A simplified, shown heart pulse is also the 210 Most These front in Figure of the or main routed surface with the line scale lowers line are The block system. bang to the pips are exact no bright starting start the "how learned precise diagram The 2-10. spot point left screen. operate from the capabilities sweep to" at the screen of the edge line
2-9. left
Markers astigmatism The on the on the horizontal CRT CRT line screen, screen is aligned manual comes timer from testing or rate surface the vertical and focus usually centering to coincide with for the the of various controls control set to place the scale control with zero ultrasonic the individual same source. is is the initial that and pulse pulse piece.
sharpness
presentation. sweep of the Usually, and adjust of each shows transducer water operation
centering
The
or base
controls
instrument
by an electrical to the
In immersion
testing, distance
FREQUENCIES have far frequencies beyond the available audible range, In a range but still from 200 Kc to 25 Mc. in the test
propagate
2-14
/r
, i
OSCILLOSCOPE
\
T
SWEEP CIRCUIT
PULSER CIRCUIT
MARKER CIRCUIT
1
I
TRANSDUCER
POWER SUPPLY
"
TEST PIECE
Figure %./
2-10.
Pulse-Echo
Unit,
Block
Diagram 2-15
of penetration is governed
frequencies.
the nature of the particular problem. about 1 Mc, readily penetrate the test uation. surface difficult beam beams be used contact They are also small resolving more testing. of the scattered debit flaws. less side, is rough. to resolve with are a better scattered On the
with low frequencies, of the small amount and can be used is large, emit All available not a more higher-frequency making
High-frequency A disadvantage
concentrated
power.
generally
high-frequency
of sound vibrations the dimensions VELOCITIES travel or die through (ips the through
correspondingly structure.
solids
high
but of
are
is a constant
authorities
convenience, of velocities.
velocities
centimeters
a meaningful material,
differences
in velocity
to differences
2-1.
Ultrasonic
Differences
MATERIAL
VELOCITY
(LONGITUDINAL) MPH
AIR WATER
0.001 1. 000
738 3,333
PLASTIC
(ACRYLIC)
5,972 13,981
ALUMINUM
BERYLLIUM
r,,
28,633
2-16
x.j
alone
cannot
account
high
velocity
of water as water.
is thirteen
TRAVEL
i ! i
I
1.
GENERAL are made up of atoms (or tiny particles) lined up in straight lines to form
All materials lattices, the first column, movement compression, 2. Figure Note ducer shear
as shown in Figure 2-11. If we strike the side of this lattice, we find that column of atoms strikes the second column, which in turn strikes the third and so on, In this direction. wave in sequence. case, This mode. OF LONGITUDINAL & SHEAR WAVE MODES waves These is at right in the waves angles same are piece. called the type This motion produces direction motion a wave is called movement same the in the direcor particle-movement of soundwave is the as the wave-
Lion shown.
longitudinal,
waves
the particle-movement
direction
TRANSDUCER /
WAVEDmECTIOM
WAVE FRONT
.j
Figure
2-11.
Longitudinal
Wave
Mode 2-17
..... -_ ..............
/TRANSDUCER WEDGE
/
TEST PIECE PLASTIC
I
MOTION
I
I i I \ \
SHEAR WAVE WAVE
1
LONGITUDINAL
Figure movement longitudinal wedge so that specific a_le, 3. Shear a plane erated waves about ............. strikes test only face SHEAR waves normal in a thin are 2 per the specimen. at a sharp waves are called cent test direction. waves.
& Shear
Wave
Modes
of shear the
waves
is approximately transducer
right-hand
is mounted
on a plastic
the ultrasonic waves generated by the crystal enter the material at a depending on the velocity of soundbeam travel within the material. AND SURFACE are, in a sense, to the layer less surface As called corner. direction of particles than WAVES polarized on the as the free particle A special boundary waves, displacements type and of shear These propagate beam of a solid. are oriented is gena velocity surface with in
wave
Rayleigh
wh.en a transducer in the reflection waves wedge in the occurring and surof sound shear travel
is:mounted
on a steeply:angled shown,
at an angle
a curve,
produce
angle-beam
_TRANSDUCER
WEDGE
\ \
SURFACE
\
\ SHEAR MODE \(j _ PARTICLE M(]T_N-
) () () ) () ) \
,,y/,
",,/
/
/,"
NOTE THAT BEAMS ARE IN THE LONGITUDINAL MODEIN EACH WEDGE. MODE CONVERSION OCCURS WHEN THE SOUNDBEAM ENTERS THE TEST MATERIAL.
2-13.
Mode
Conversion
Confusion
be encountered
to produce
to other matedesigned to
at 45 in steel,
at 43 in aluminum,
or 30 in copper. 213 1. REFRACTION GENERAL and medium description. in the normal occurs. medium, mode conversion of the ultrasonic to the entire The range direction, 2-14, beam of this when passing beams at an angle when is covered is incident through longitudinal cent from AND MODE CONVERSION
Refraction one material from one following specimen and and second
to another
to another.
a longitudinal in Figure
(perpendicular)
it is transmitted as a 100-per
no refraction
2-19
TRANSDUCER
1ST MEDIUM
I !
I 2 o j
i
I
Figure 2. As the version L and point between medium, both times incident as the MIXED incident occur, shear is reached 90 and where angle the angle. LMODE angle and (S) wave that this CONVERSION is rotated the longitudinal beams is known first and
2-14.
Normal
Incident
Beam
from
initial
and
conin both a
in the
is rotated enters
To sum
refraction
refracted
is changed. Refraction
-
incident
S-wave
is a little because
1ST MEDIUM (WATER)
conversion
L-wave
TRAN SDUCER---..__
90
(STEEL),_
!_,,..(
L-WAVE
Figure 2-20
2-15.
5 = Incident
Beam V
changedwhen the beam entered the second medium. The velocity of the shear wave is approximately half that of the longitudinal wave. As the incident angle is rotated further, both refracted angles increase. The first angle to reach 90 will be the L-wave angle, as discussed in the next paragraph. 3.
SHEAR WAVE GENERATION to produce an incident from the test surface, at the are 90", between 1st the the the Critical Angle, through of the angle and transmitted angle incident 1st angle of 15 , the L-wave as shown in Figure 2-16. where the the L-wave medium. at the only beam beam. S-wave second is increased The incident is reflected, rotation the are Angle. When beams
Rotating the transducer to 90 , and is reflected angle and of the S-wave In the produced. 4. Rotating creased S-wave face. medium, they 5. To SURFACE the has WAVE is now positioned only S-wave beam entire beams reaches region, transducer
increases
refracted
shear-wave Angle,
is positioned
2nd Critical
GENERATION to produce 2-17 mode are shows conversion Rayleigh out. The or gaseous damped an incident that the with angle only some shear medium. waves of 27 , the waves particle are easily are waves S-wave are angle L-waves; in the in the is inthe test water because sur-
to 90 . In an air these
reflected
surface in a liquid
angles
are
those
bounding points
each beyond
side the
of the
area
where
transmitted.
2nd Critical
\;
TEST PIECE \| _ ____/____ L-WAVE ____. (ST E E L),,,,,,,_
I\\
_'/
9:0
S-WAVE
A
Figure 2-16. 1st Critical
Angle
._TRANSDUCER,,_
_'_
27 L-WAVE
\
TEST PIECE \ J (STEEL)k_k \ SURFACE WAVE
J
90
Figure 2-17. Angle sound area Both the for and at the critical soundbeam the other. angle SNELL'S GENERAL the soundbeam velocities in the grazing incidence, Angle there into the produces calculated of the into type the
2ridCritlcal Angle reflection medium. Rayleigh for are second of the velocity known. medium, soundwave, in the first (in immersion In contact waves The Snell's testing), testing, in the Law, sine the and test the and specimen. of 1, i. e., second the no
is total second
energy
angular
and second
words,
velocity L-wave
L or S, in the medium
is simply
being
transmitted.
LAW
couplant
used
in immersion
testing,
or the wedge
material used in contact testing, men, the longitudinal (L) beams when puted c. the soundbeam a Dutch from enters developed mathematician. its original the by a formula
are different than the sound velocity passing' through the wedge or couplant test material. Snell's For application, use Law, which Incident after was in ultrasonics, meant or refracted Willebrord Snell's Snell
in the test speciare refracted angles are been commodior Snellius, optical
from
1621,
Law has
to explain
LAW CALCULATIONS formula and the may mode be used to calculate the incident solids angle, immersed the resultant in water, reoil, or
fracted
of materials,
including
2-22
Sin _1 _ V 1 Sin 92 Where 91 = incident _2 = angle V 1 = velocity V 2 = velocity NOTE: The quire given cm/sec 2.54 3. Figure plastic second
|
V2 angle from refracted normal beam vibrations in the of the beam in the test in the material. or wedge. test. or refraction Sin) ratios per sec in/sec to by cm/_ reare liquid or wedge.
of the
in the material
liquid under
determining
angles tables.
microsecond
handling.
to the right.
PROBLEM-SOLVING a contact incident the In this in the known, Law. is fixed ANGLES transducer angle angle case, region
shows are
angle
As the Snell's
incident
between
CRITICAL GENERAL
OF REFRACTION
As discussed
previously,
soundbeams
passing
through
a medium
such
as water
or
plastic (medium 1 for velocity an incident angle; the second velocity beams shear cal where bined 2. As the when the (medium are and Angle, refracted longitudinal waves 2 for velocity and
1, V1) are refracted medium is usually the 2, V2). This testing produced, For small conversion, between region lessening to mode region, thus
when entering a second medium at material under test with a differing angles normal beyond confusing of the resulting the incident and beam, the from 1st the soundof Criticomangle in a combination first signals critical
waves.
incident
is not as useful
as is the
ANGLE is widened, angle reaches selecting transducer First, the 1st Critical 90 . a contact and At this shear Angle point, wave angle is reached only shear angle-beam to produce is that when waves transducer, shear the waves, refracted 2-23 the rein or
fracted
longitudinal adjusting
exist
second
When considered.
an immersed
at an incident of prime
two conditions
importance,
3530'f
SNELLIS
LAW: _-SIN _2
V1 V2
SOUND VELOCITY:
V 1 = VELOCITY VS = VELOCITY
LONGITUDINAL SHEAR
REFRACTED
PLASTIC:
VL =
.267
CM//_SEC
STEEL: NDBEAM
V1 =
.585
CM//_SEC CM/.USEC
VS = .323
GIVEN: STEEL
SIN 91
= SIN 3530
FROM TRIGONOMETRIC
WAVES
V_ .267 V L .585
CM/_SEC CM/MSEC
Vlr .267
CM/HSEC
VS .32.3 CM/#SEC
0.58070 SIN 92
.267 .585
0,58070 SIN 92
.267 .323
SIN 92
.585(0.58070) .267
SIN 92
.323(0.58070) .267
SIN 92
1.2723
SIN 92
0.7024
_2
ALL LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE REFLECTED; NO LONGITUDINAL WAVE CAN EXIST, IF _2 90" OR MORE. IS
92
4437'FROM TRIGONOMETRIC SINE FUNCTION 0.70236, ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE PRODUCED BY REFRACTION.
Figure
2-18.
Calculation
of Refracted
Angle
Z-24
longitudinal
wave
is totally
reflected
(its
angle
of refraction
must
be 90 ) so that
penetrating ultrasound is limited the first condition, the refracted the rial 3. requirements method desired at the of the angle. ANGLE further, reaches testing degree. test immersion of testing
to shear waves only. Second, within the limits shear wave enters the test piece in accordance The certain 1st Critical the Angle soundbeam is calculated enters the in the test that
standard. to make
2nd Critical point, piece the waves liquid show units. test
Angle all
when are
the
reRayleigh
of contact to a large
surface
produced.
In immersion
of surface
in experimental in detecting
on immersed articles. These of bond failure in metal-to-metal CALCULATION soundbeam OF CRITICAL for the
velocities
of the
first
and
second
medium
are
known
(V 1 and V2) , either critical using the sine of 90 , i.e., Thus, steel: in the case of the
angle may be calculated with 1, as the sine of the refracted transducer mounted
the formula for Shell's Law, angle in the second medium. wedge for testing
contact
on a plastic
Sin I Snell' s Law: Sin _2 Sin _1 Sin _2(1. Divide cm/_ V 2 into sec. a. V 1 = 0. 45641 with divided 0000) 1st Critical velocity
V1 V 2 (longitudinal wave)
sec sec If the 2nd Critical in steel: 2nd Critical test sec). (V 1 = 0. 267 cm/_ materials the for the given L-wave uranium. L-wave sec), materials, Angle 0. 323 Angle. using
is desired,
wave the
V 1 = 0. 82662 critical medium wedge angles of uranium. than in the the test
angles
b.
a plastic critical
exception the
This used
is one for
V 2 should
be greater
k.J
2-25
7o 14 15
10" 29" 27 29 31 51
VL=1.280, VL= VL= VL= VL= VL= .625, .585, .566, .518, .338,
15" 17 26
NOTE:
VL=LONGITUDINALVELOCITY,
VS=SHEARVELOCITY
Table
2-3.
Critical
Angles,
Contact
Testing
1ST CRITICAL
2ND CRITICAL
VELOCITY
(CM/
SEC).
12" 25 27 28 31
18 59 56 59 68
NOTE:
VL=LONGITUDINALVELOCITY,
VS=SHEARVELOCITY
216
SOUNDBEAM
ATTENUATION waves, and to the most passing scattering grain volume where where without due the through at the the losses, interruption to friction in the a material, grain boundaries and is less is greater by grain of the vibrating material are reduced within than than the in power material. grain size, as though where or
Scattering attentuation
important
to damping.
In damping
energy
2-26
217 1.
SPREADING
An ultrasonic Because linear nounced approaches is considered there is always D2/4X distance outward This wave spread and of the the enough
travels
through shape.
matter involved,
with
very
little becomes
wavelengths of absolute
or straight-sided
wavelength
characteristic
projection
of the transducer,
spreading. Fraunhofer the face of the transducer. from of the the face center of the of the ratio X/D,
causes the beam to spread distance, the beam spreads face sine of the of the transducer. half-angle wavelength The of the ultrasonic
to appear D is the
to originate diameter
radiating
spread
is a function
where
is calculated
as follows: X Sin q5 = 1.22-D diameter contact The transducer wavelength is used of the on sound-
For
example:
Assume
that
a 1-inch
aluminum at a frequency beam is 0. 625 centimeter. What Convert D to metric is the system half-angle
of 1 Mc.
of beam
inches
Sin _b = 1.22
Sin @ = 0. 30012 = 17 28' 2. Beam quency, greater crystal ducer small 1/2-inch 25.0 depths Mc. BEAM spread the the SPREAD in steel, larger beam the spread. frequencies limited by the diameter transducers at various crystal, Also, than size have are frequencies, the straighter is less available used. For at lower of the been used there is given the beam; beam frequencies. contact shallow selected in Figure the The depth for smaller for surface. the diameter testing, such testing 2-19. the same At any frecrystal, diameter of the 3/8-and as 5.0 through to greater transas the of
spread
Transducers
frequencies,
A large-diameter
transducer
_,
2-27
SIN(_
= 1.22
-_-
WHERE
TRANSDUCER CM .581 .259 .116 3/8 48" 10' 19"23' 8"34' 1/2 34 1425 6"25'
DIAMETER (D) INCHES 3/4 21"52' ' 9"33' 4" 16' 1. O 16 13' 7"9' 3"12'
/
POWER POINT (.707
OF INTENSITY)
Figure 3. Figure transducer side ing. beams reflected lobes are SOUNDBEAM 2-20 shows when shown the PATTERNS the in the work, to the reduction figure the when its are
2-19.
Beam
Spread
in Steel
for
a 1/2-inch The
frequency
Mc. manner
In practical back
primary
beam creating
is the spurious
considered
transducer,
intensity
is along
a gradual
in amplitude
218
WAVES travel over the surface they were of a solid studied surface a sharp side face and bear by Lord a rough Rayleigh discontinuities Rayletgh corner, are reflected but if the resemblance (c. 1875) at a distance lying waves at the edge to because from just traveling is edge, lower beon the
surface
top face
reflected
D = DIAMETER OFCRYSTAL ,_= WAVELENGTH ULTRASONIC AVEIN STEEL OF W O" = 34" _ = 14" O"
Figure returning of its almost flection finger their The edges to the are completely over depth the along 2-21. WAVES sending rounded point. off. traced of the surface along
2-20.
Radiation travel around to the waves oscilloscope are is usually an elliptical the
Patterns entire a cylinder. surface, screen also called no more particle way around Rayleigh so the while than path a cube waves of any the as waves as shown if all are re-
can be easily
moving one
surface motion,
wavelength.
soundbeam
LAMB
GENERAL wave theory Lamb at a given was waves velocity angle developed travel and along by Horace a test Lamb specimen in thin These The proper (c. 1916). with sheets are angle waves Lamb waves are produced to the waves the surface be comof
ultrasonic
waves
as follows:
_.J
2-29
l
Figure Where V L = Incident Vp
DIRECTI
PROPAGATION
SURFACE
PARTICLE MOTION
2-21. VL
Rayletgh
or
Surface
Waves
is a function
of frequency,
2. There
LAMB are
WAVE
two general
of waves
produced
in Lamb
wave
testing.
These
are
termed symmetrical and of vibration are possible that depends wave LAMB 2-4, Lamb on plate velocity. WAVE the waves sec Rayleigh 3.
asymmetrical waves. in a given plate. Each and types frequency, of Lamb Both
of modes of each class with a phase velocity from in Figure infinity 2-22. down to
thickness
waves
MODES incident and angles, thick transmitting aluminum sec plate; in water. make them applicable The close that energy are to a wide first travel to the surface variety do of is a 5 Mc ultrasonic with a longitudinal beam, velocity proof
In Table duced
in a 0. 051-inch
waves
to flow
plates energy
the detection defects, Rayleigh the a phase problems, along since waves. plate, velocity
of subsurface Where
modes
a con-
with
PARTICLE
MOTION
SYMM ETRICAL
ASYMMETRICAL
Figure
2-22.
Lamb
Waves
INCIDENT ANGLE
PHASE
VELOCITY
MODE
PRODUCED
33.0 31.0
CM//ISEC.
IST ASYM. IST SYM. 2ND ASYM. 2ND SYM. 3RD ASYM. 3RD SYM. 4TH SYM.
inspection and
tubing
and plates
for
internal plates
defects and
or grain tubes.
determinations; COUPLANTS GENERAL of the the the practical source source because of a dry into and part,
of welds
in butt-welded
testing This
the
is done
very
of the
2-31
2.
When
ACOUSTIC an ultrasonic
ary between it and a second medium while the remainder istic of each test material (z) and acoustic impedance
medium, part of the energy continues through the second is reflected back into the first medium. The characterthat determines the of the amount density of reflection (p) and velocity is known (v), as the is a product expressed:
z=pv 3. REFLECTED ENERGY system second is not the wave air, passes is air, each through almost an interface 100 percent of interface For example, be vastly as surface Experience is with lkluid twice, of the material and different has couplants. once energy will in each result direction ff in a
medium
medium theoretical
combination
in water-magnesium
it is 54 percent. calculated discontinuities best 4. Acoustic occur another impedance medium specimen. oil, ideal. to the part 221 1. The test for that method
roughness
of reflection. to a solid
COUPLANTSELECTION impedances in ultrasonic of greatly with with This may testing different a couplant couplant to that oil, various be matched where becomes that may of the water, amalgams. testing, the water impedance. is between be viewed work. glycerin, For by keeping must When necessary. the that them alike; however, from some couplant of the which been a thin and one method source matches made soap-suds, transformer wetting agents to thoroughly using situations medium often into
energy
an impedance
immersion couplant. OF
is adequate. of air
oil or water
to ensure
elimination
TEST
SPECIMEN
ON SOUNDBEAM
when
the
influence A shortcut
of
variables
in one of the
or without
operator in all.
of geometric
and material
form or another, the operator will receive spurious or confusing indications from any of the following test specimen variables: 2.
Rough
a
ROUGHNESS distort of echo discontinuity. of resolving echo. lobe below energy surfaces. the is caused power This which is caused by a lengthening pip into the side back the mask or secondary presence of the on the lobe frontoscilloscope energy. from ultrasonic amplitude at the indications from surface as follows: within the part. This of the loss surface may on
to scatter
or to roughness
is seen
as a wide of transducer
front-surface
transducer
smooth
condition
of a discontinuity
c.
of beam
from scatter.
the
rough
surface
or to a requirement
frequency
SHAPE
OR CONTOUR
OF TEST
SPECIMEN of the a test left test specimen to the in the sound point the cause with front area waves partial surface, where are In actual so that the or total back the caromed practice, a few weak sound back
boundaries reflection. area returned boundary of the In the are one is sloped
of back
specimen side,
an irregular
attenuation.
reflection
IMMERSED TRANSDUCER
"
I TEST
"__
SPECIMEN
Figure
_o,.J
2-23.
Irregular
Back
Surface
Effect 2-33
signals
a
are
received
by the
transducer,
creating
confusing test
indications.
A convex surface is illustrated on the The soundbeam Is widened by refraction boundary. specimen Considerable surface, have less in a flat acoustic power as shown,
specimen shown in Figure 2-24. after passing through the convex is lost signals by reflection Signals received at the reflected from the test from same spread.
and by beam
/RE ECTEO
Figure
b,
Convex
2-25 the
boundary,
soundbeam
is narrowed test
or focused. be difficult
discontinuity because
of unwanted
reflections
IMMERSED TRANSDUCER
SPECIMEN
DISCONTINUITY
"
Figure 2-34
2-25.
Concave
Surface
Effect
4.
When tion mode appear are are
MODE the
TEST
SPECIMEN is such directly contacted may echoes are that the soundbeam, back beam. to appear they are waves. at angles to the as they changed which are or a portransducer, back they from calwill
shape
spread, boundary
indications
be identified
longitudinal culated
to shear
to longitudinal
by the
Where:
_L _S
= Incident = Reflected
beam.
V L = Velocity V S = Velocity As the the that angle sine the incident of the angle half angle
in the
test
specimen.
in the test is known, to it, or can be easily in accordance The velocity 2-26 reflected of the determined, with the shear shear rule beam beam re-
will
be about the
beam
is about
velocity
longitudinal
shows
soundbeam
TEST SPECIMEN
_"_'-_
S-WAVE_ /
Figure
2-26.
Mode
Conversion
Caused
by Beam
Spread
part with grazing incidence. Depending on the material, the resulting mode consists of mixed modes of longitudinal and shear waves. 5. COARSE GRAIN PARTICLES WITHIN TEST SPECIMEN
Coarse
back reflection, particularly when the size of the particle and the wavelength are comparable. If the frequency is lowered to the point where than grain size, scattering losses are reduced, but sensitivityis also lowered. 6. The result may lie ORIENTATION orientation in the with loss its to the its and long size when AND depth axis DEPTH of the parallel are OF DISCONTINUITY discontinuity echo. to the directed indicates and parallel may In the If the away from caused test the also zones: is at the limit. will will cause case confusing of orientation, a small is angled indications the indication from A sudden from If the by the dead zone, test by the of the the or may discontinuity in the loss depip turned diszone, as the the the V discontiof
of the
discontinuity
soundbeam,
proportion soundbeam, back crease nuity, is small, at an angle continuity. and the shown. leading surface far edge
of the
discontinuity.
reflections
transducer.
scanning, is proportional is flat to the loss surface. shows depth edge to the zone,
If the discontinuity
reflection, principal
2-27 trailing
is determined If the
When
pulse
dead-zone no indication
discontinuity
is just
beneath beyond
within
If it is just amplitude
dead zone, in the near zone, phasing effects erable degree as a function of position.
to a consid-
LEADING EDGE OF PULSE (EXTENT i _NEAR TRANS-_ DUCER I -,,---TRAILING ZONE _'_ I I I I EDGE OF PULSE
OF DEAD ZONE)
TEST SPECIMEN
FAR ZONE
Figure 2-36
2-27.
Dead
Zone,
Near
Zone,
and
Far
Zone
The
depth
of the
near
zone
is determined
by extending
dimension
lines
from
transducer diameter, side. At this distance, center diffraction transducer, = wavelength causing nuity tance 222 1. With surface coupling the the sults
F
as shown, the beam face. which limit soundbeam). varying is moved from
to intersect with the spreading spreads outward as if it had This effect zone is sometimes to spread intensity may Beyond the (D = diameter be obtained near diminishes the beam Soundbeam indications across the it. discontinuity
beam on each originated from distance transducer in the the in the same far
of the
(from
causes near
of the
where
amplitude
exponentially
inereases. RESONANCE GENERAL the resonance tube, of the medium. of its resonates test thickness at some piece. thickness. or oscillates increase thickness Resonance in its of half occurs measuring well waves The with Acoustic method, below from the a crystal the crystal's crystal is excited, frequency, by means cause the The of the sample crystal sample by means and held of a suitable to vibrate is varied vibration in its of to is equal frequenof vibration sample resonance as: increase in until reof an on the THICKNESS MEASURING
oscillator
frequency
contact frequency
Longitudinal
direction sample
at one
%J
wavelengths.
it is possible
thickness
of a material
2 of harmonics
number
= Wavelength T = Thickness 2. Each quency. are occurs. resonance nance smooth and MATERIAL thickness At this Since method in phase, CHARACTERISTICS of a given frequency the velocity a relatively material large and has increase reliable for also a characteristic of it, constant, measure thickness detect when the the in the amplitude or fundamental transmitted of the waves resonant and reflected in the The with same to produce resotwo sides plane as frewaves material
or multiples is a known
frequency
of an unknown measurements
primarily it will
discontinuities
lying
2-37
the ously
test
is applied frequency
much
like the
the is,
other
test-
frequency determining
continuas a
resonance frequency.
Similar
an almost
constant
resonant
whenever material.
wavelengths
shows
displacement
of minimum at the
displacement
adjacent In the
or adjacent illustration,
2X, respectively.
/TRANSDUCER
ll
0.5k
=_
_--
-,
1.5A
--
=2k
"
Figure 4. Velocity may THICKNESS is always CALCULATIONS equal as: V F V _-for as to the
2-28.
Standing
Waves
product
of frequency
and
wavelength,
thus
wavelength
be expressed
V equation T = N, -_
results in
Substituting be expressed
X in the 2T = N v F"
NF= 2
N 2_F
which
may
2-38
Since
N is any
whole may
number be calculated
it may
Thus resor_ant
V 2T = -_-or frequency
V T = 2"F are
if the
causes is the
oscilloscope,
Using where
the
equation
F = Resonant
0.585 1.80 (using cm= 0.90 0.128 frequency) inches a thickness (called divided in inches, scale over the which The the K is
T = 0.32 Actual a listing table thickness of velocity determinations constants are given made
by placing
oscilloscope is used
screen, to convert
or by referring frequency T-
equation:
Where
of material (veloCity
in million
inch/second or Fundamental
divided
by 2).
in Mc (Resonant T =
Frequency).
For
example:
T = 0.128 5. SUMMARY oscillator the electrical into is received an audible the transmits energy test by the tone,
A variable-frequency ducer. transmitted vibrational amplified, oscilloscope There, continuously energy and screen, indicated
transformed deflection,
on a display
or a flashing
The greatest accuracy is usually obtained with the oscilloscope display. As the oscillator sweeps through the resonant frequency of the test specimen or through any harmonics of that frequency, vertical indications appear on the oscilloscope screen. These indications are used to determine thickness as they indicate the frequencies required to produce resonance at the fundamental frequency or its harmonics.
2-40
CHAPTER TABLE
3: OF
EQUIPMENT CONTENTS
Paragraph 3O0 301 GENERAL PULSE-ECHO 1. 2. 3. 4. 3O2 General Controls A-Scan B-Scan ........................................ UNITS ................................. ....................................... ....................................... Equipment Equipment ................................ ................................ .............
Page 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-6 3-7 3-7 3-9 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-13 3-13 3-17 3-18 3-18 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-19 .......................... Set ....................... 3-20 3-20 3-21 3-22 ....................... ...................... ..................... ......................... ...................... .................... .................... Blocks 3-23 3-23 3-24 3-24 3-26 3-26 3-27 3-29 3-29 3-1
3O3
3. Bridge/Manipulator ............................... TRANSDUCERS ..................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 General Sensitivity Resolution Materials Crystal Transducer ....................................... ..................................... ..................................... ...................................... Planes Types .................................. ................................
304
Selection ............................... ....................................... ....................................... Couplant ............................... Couplant ................................. REFERENCE BLOCKS ........................ ....................................... Blocks Set Set Blocks
305
306
RESONANCE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
.......................................
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
(CONT) Page
Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-22 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-29 3-30
Typical A-Scan B-Scan C-Scan C-Scan Typical Functional Ultrasonic Typical Typical Pulse-Echo Presentation Presentation Presentation Principle C-Scan Tank Paint-Brush Double Diagram, and Unit Controls ...................... . ............................. .............................. .............................. of Operation Recording C-Scan ........................ System .................... ................. ...................... ......................... ...........................
3-4 3-6 3-8 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-10 3-11 3-11 3-14 3-15 3-15 3-16 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-20 ............... 3-21 3-22 3-22 ........... ......... .... . . . Modulated Tester ....... Modulated 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-29 .............. 3-30 3-30
Bridge/Manipulator
Transducers
Straight-Beam and Angle-Beam Transducers .............. Flat and Contour-Corrected Transducers ................. Focused-Beam Contact Contact Shortening in Metal ..................... ................ ................ (Hitt) Transducer, Transducer, Externally Internally Reference Reference Blocks, Blocks Basic Blocks Blocks Set Grounded Grounded
Area/Amplitude Distance/Amplitude ASTM Special Functional Meter-Type Oscilloscope-Type Stroboscopic-Type Reference Reference
Diagram, Thickness
Light Display .......................... Transducers ............................ Transducer Reference Operating Blocks Range .................... Testing
9 Mc Resonance
3-2
CHAPTER 300 This GENERAL chapter covers the more in most for the
3:
EQUIPMENT
testing specific
of theory, event
supersede
chapter
UNITS
equipment according
have to the
similar manufacturer.
basic one
to all makes.
Nomenclature
following
Supply. units,
for a battery
supply
for unit.
functions line
instrument, some
power
is served
contained consists
Transducer. crystal vibrations within fication the and converts into test
crystal energy
and reflected
its and
the
specimen
electrical
display. The are applied pulser or pulse bursts amplified, display and the pulser test and generator Return routed to the (a thyratron energy pulses display with is the from unit. a sweep image rate source generaof the generaof all tube) the is the by the test
c.
of electrical and
(triggered
to the transducer.
d.
controls
a visual to as the
timing signals tor or clock. 2. Controls supply, description a. CONTROLS are pulser, (Figure for
is sometimes
3-1) various timer, may vary The functions and from display. one supply on power, type of the instrument system, used such as power following
in the
Power and
Supply. After
power
is usually there
fuses.
turning
23
x.J
17 1. SENSITIVITY, VERNIER 2. SENSITIVITY, COARSE 3. OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN 4. VERTICAL 5. HORIZONTAL 6. INTENSITY 7. SWEEP DELAY, VERNIER 8. SWEEP DELAY, COARSE Figure circuit b. elements 3-1. during The is adjusted by testing, same 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
16
15
13 TRANSMIT JACK RECEIVE JACK TEST, THRU/NORMAL REJECT FREQUENCYSELECTOR PULSE TUNING PULSE LENGTH
DRUM DIAL, MATERIAL VELOCITY IN #SEC SWEEP SELECTORS FOCUS MARKER, ON/OFF, COARSE MARKER, VERNIER POWER, ON/OFF, SCALE ILLUM ASTIGMATISM Typical instrument pulse PULSE the Pulse-Echo warm-up. energy and and For Unit Controls
into
the
test For to
PULSE
receive
transducer
testing,
through vided
proan
transducer
receiving for
provided
A selector
frequencies given
consist
a clean provided.
usually and
with
adjustments The
ad-
controls
for
the
display
(1)
VERT. screen.
Controls
vertical
position
of the
display
on the
oscilloscope
Controls
horizontal
position
of display
on the
oscilloscope
Varies Adjusts
of display on the
as desired. screen. introduced screen. turns power of grid and that on for lines. controls are The side of by changing
focus for
oscilloscope
Corrects time and unit. controls coarse to suit the with side Other is also right
(6) POWER
entire Timer which DELAY the visible
d.
adjusts
unit provide
at the
generated, display
or multiples
reflections
Other are:
refinements
not always
provided
(1)
,E
Markers. to serve the is activated selection. MARKER quency. waves, cuits may are
The
marker
circuit
square marks
waves
sweep circuit
line
purpose there
on a ruler.
out of the
by a MARKER be a MARKER selection the the closer measurements. the unit. Correction), TCG (Time to compensate deep timer
ON-OFF or fre-
ADJUSTMENT The higher and the more involved on the DAC and Varied reflected
to permit
with
or clock,
or TVG
discontinuities
pulse the
duration by higher
by the applied
DAMPING
control Res-
length
of the wave
to the transducer.
IF-VIDEO
IF (intermediate
frequency)
or VIDEO.
Kj
3-5
(5)
Transducer Voltage. High for the transducer with the Alarm. Gated-alarm are within gated
driving current is selected VOLTAGE switch. the use within of automatic by the test alarms setting up specimen. on to
(6) Gated
when Signals specific,
is accomplished be monitored
automatically
visual or aural alarms. or strip chart recorders units or Delay. of the screen. or Width. of the edge. The length gate usually The location have gate three
START of the
or DELAY edge
Justment
leading
oscil-
LENGTH gate
control of the
is used gate
for
of the
Alarm Level or Sensitivity. The alarm LEVEL or SENSITIVITY control is used for adjustment of the gate vertical threshold to turn on signal lights or to activate an alarm a socket is provided for connecting the alarm components. relay. On some units,
relay to external
EQUIPMENT is a data test line on the on the presentation screen oscilloscope method screen to display as indicates the shown returned in Figure time signals 3-2. (from left from
of an oscilloscope
elapsed
C_r
B C
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
Figure
3-2.
A-Scan
Presentation
3-6
to right), velocity terms sonic flected depth spread, coated that dimensions
and in the
the
amplitudes. directly, may the or back advantage the sample. time represent
a given the
specimen,
be calibrated
across
when
vertical
of the
discontinuity
an oscilloscope
is of the
it provides
needed
discontinuity. 4. The vides B-SCAN B-scan these a. EQUIPMENT equipment, functions: Retention persistence b. Deflection nism c. with of the image on the coating. spot on the along oscilloscope sample. in proportion to the screen in synchrooscilloscope screen by use of a Iongin addition to the basic components of the A-scan unit, pro-
the
intensity
modulation
or brightening
signals
received. useful on the and the where the distribution is of interest. are made signals and shape As to the are of in to
The large
Figure Y axis
the horizontal persistence are long screen 5. C-scan speed tinuities commonly printing bar C-SCAN equipment automatic in a plan used and displayed. enough for
In high-speed record.
sample
to photograph
EQUIPMENT is intended scanning view, a helix recorders to provide a permanent testing. paper 3-4. The record C-scan that of the test when the The between has highdisconmost a
in ultrasonic no depth
or orientation
information. printing
a chemically-treated as shown to one terminal sliding in Figure of the output is connected point
a narrow
terminals of the amplifier in the to the helix mounted on the helix between the bar and the helix
contact
OSCILLOSCOPE
I
SWEEP Y-AXIS J 9 TIMER
I AMP"F'ER_ _
POLSER ]
-/4----(_ X-AXIS
MECHANICAL LINKAGE
,F
moves point drum ment oscilloscope
PRINTING
,_,,. , _ION
__r.r '_ _
1
i'_
Figure back determine produces of the and forth the one so that,
BAR
B-Scan
Presentation in electric on the The paper. current at the with contact of the the moveto the
the
of scan.
is synchronized amplifier
transducer
a signal
_
(pip) of predetermined
... FLAWS
is displayed,
Figure 3-8
3-4.
C-Se_
Presentation
a change the recording of the corders the the of the test ing does
in the
printing length
bar and
of
discontinuities
transducer above
directly as
specimen.
discontinuity shown
On others,
may
in Figure by the
represent is repre-
print-out
may be reversed
continuities
specimen
sented by blank space. The extent indicates the size of the recording. A-scan, from and the the produce specimen alarm a change are sensitivity on the control eliminated
of the marked (or unmarked) area of the recording The same signals that generate the pips on the C-scan from setting recording. the recording Figure determines The the front amplitude 3-7 shows and back of the surface gating signal signals circuits, (pip) diagram by the instrument
required to produce a change of the C-scan system. 302 I. ULTRASONIC GENERAL tanks over while Most and test a fairly transversing of these units TANK
on the
recording.
a functional
AND BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR
bridge/manipulators specimens. large water 3-8. power are Modern tank, Drive units
are
of immersed as shown
a pulse-echo
in Figure
manipulator
automated,
although
manually
DISCONTINUITY
Figure
3-5.
C-Scan
Principle
of Operation
Figure 3-6.
BEAM
GATE
DEPTH l_
IRATE I
GENERATOR
POS,T,ON_ * _
_,_,
"_,_
T
Diagram, recorder C-Scan System mounted
_"
l'v /
._x-_xl;Po_,_-,o.
t'3
I_TRANSDUCER i I TESTING DEPTH
l-I
_='_
Figure operated. as 2. The shown. ULTRASONIC ultrasonic tank TANK may On most
3-7.
Functional units,
automatic
a C-scan
is also
on the
bridge
be of any
size
or
shape
to accommodate
the
test
specimen. _'_
3-10
Figure The for water usually 3. The test Figure moved water support depth Adjustable of the containing maintained is usually
3-8.
and
Bridge/Manipulator of the specimen are in the provided tank the water by a foot on the is clean, or more tank bottom is deaerated of
water.
lazy-susan
specimen.
temperature
at 70 F by automatic
BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR bridge/manipulator specimen 3-9 along has the with a bridge tank side unit an immersed with rails. is primarily transducer. a carriage The unit manipulator intended The at each to provide stripped-down end so the is mounted
--
the
on a traversing
SEARCH OR
mecha-
___CABLE
_SCANNER.
TUBE
<
__
-'_"---.._:.
_"_r___.__J
MANIPULATOR
Figure x_z
3-9.
Bridge/Manipulator 3-11
nism, enabling movementof the manipulator from side to side. The traversing mechanism is an integral componentof the bridge assembly. The search tube is usually held rigid, as shown, at right angles to the surface of the test specimen. Locking knobs are provided on the manipulator to allow positioning of the search tube in two planes for angle-beam testing. When automated, electric motors are addedto power the bridge carriage, the traversing mechanism, and the up-down movementof the search tube. The pulse-echo unit andthe recording unit are also mountedon the bridge, with all power cords secured overheadto allow movementof the bridge along the full length of the tank. 303
1. TRANSDUCERS GENERAL
h,
In ultrasonic energy, information screen. for 2. The the The most the
the
ear
of the echoes
is the
sound
hears
to the
instrument
it is visually sensitivity
on the testing
capabilities described
are
and resolution.
SENSITIVITY sensitivity of a transducer sensitivity transducer. manufacturer in a standard is its reference Even transducers do not always ability by the block. produce to detect amplitude Precise of the same identical echoes of its size, transucer indications from response frequency, small from and on a given a given discontinuities. an artificial is unique material oscillosize flatto by
is measured
sensitivity
Transducer at a specific
RESOLUTION resolution from echo pulse, from the the or from resolving a small to stop is a measure a ringing just power close of a transducer in depth: just beneath power. or vibrating, resolving cause the a wide, surface, refers for after the to its surface. having Long been "tails" by the ability the The to separate time required by a large of sound echo. signal. the echo
echoes
two targets
together
example,
transducer
transducer
high-amplitude, is masked
three are
most lithium
are at
quartz, present
barium
titanate,
lead
a.
In the
past,
transducers materials
used
but, Quartz in
development chemical,
it is being
electrical,
uniformity mode
efficient suffers
generafrom
of the commonly
interference
voltage
to drive
it at low
frequencie b. Ceramic. most voltage, 300 C. conversion c. Lithium receivers sonic sion limited 5. Natural planes.
V
polarized generators
ceramic unaffected
other are
hand, well
are on low
the
efficient
operate
usable strength,
low mechanical
Sulfate.
Lithium
sulfate energy
most
efficient of ultraconverand
do not Lithium
age
sulfate below
is very 165 F.
at temperature
used are
are X-axis
cut and
one and
of two
perpendicular
longitudinal produce
sound shear 6.
The waves.
to the
TRANSDUCER are wide and the of the part, generally are a. the factor small made
TYPES in a limitless transducers. for (less The used many performance. beam number The special For spread) transducers transducers penetration. because and chipping. The very wide little uniform paint-brush carefully over beam the sensitivity. transducers matched entire so that length Paint-brush for are the of the made up of deeper of sizes many instance, for a given have transmit The the and shapes the greater more large very shapes are larger frequency. ability sound thin the Size from result the extremely of much small exis a the very the trans-
applications.
soundbeam
discontinuities. so are limited susceptible Paint-Brush a mosaic of the This provide beam
single-crystal high-frequency
transducers
frequencies
ducers
crystals,
intensity transducer.
is necessary a long,
rectangular
(in cross-section)
U--__X
large test the Figure
COAXIAL
in the to define
transducers transducer.
paint-brush
Illii
r
Ili l llllllllill
A ("
CRYSTAL
BEAM
LENGTH
Figure
b,
3-10.
Paint-Brush transducer
Transducer differs may the from double the single only, unit transa
Transducers. in that, only, In the receiver. and stacked types while the
single
transducers
by side
separated both
barrier
transducers. Transducers or angle-beam are also classified The surface. surface to locate the to the surface, the used as either term "straightinto is transmitted
Angle-Beam straight-beam beam" the other tinuities face. plate ducer test means
transducers. the transducer to the the test test are and specimen
energy
from into
specimen,
(perpendicular) Angle-beam angles are use at an angle also a wedge, of the desired test specimen
transducers than
soundbeam
90 degrees. at right oriented transducers into the test surface transducers and the surface
90 and
to direct
at the
angle.
In immersion
angulation
3-14
ANGLE-BEAM (PAIRED)
STRAIGHT-BEAM
(STACKED)
3-11.
Typical
Double
Transducers the test angle part of a straight-beam at the desired 3-12. are wear breakage, the added plates or the front as frontthe to angle.
is accomplished the soundbeam transducers Transducers. reasons. the fragile substances shaped These angled
transducer
to direct
shown
in Figure
various
transducers, to protect
Frontal
to direct
points lenses.
contour-correction indication
by evening
s,0.<
CONN EaT OR--...._b __.._ ACKING ,-,_ _
I?iiiiiiii ii:i!!!i!i!!iiiii
ii::il- - -_/_
CRYSTAL
GROUND CRYSTAL
Figure M.i
3-12.
Straight-Beam
and
Angle-Beam
Transducers 3-15
transducer ducers
and is shown
the
test
surface. 3-13.
of flat lenses
and
contoured the
transsoundbeam
in Figure
focus
FLAT TRANSDUCER
CONTOURED TRANSDUCER
Figure from creased maximum The beam surface. moving also the closer test the
3-13.
Flat
and
Transducers focused. very Focused small moves in this the transducers beam its case, point of range. the test is The of in-
concentrate in a relatively
blunt-pointed
soundbeam
shortens
In Figure intensity
when increased
beam
enters
increased
intensity surface)
sensitivity; resolution.
SOUND BEAM
//
J _. _ .,I --_
.....
--SPHERICAL LENS GREATER CONVERGENCE
DIVERGENCE
-I
BEYOND FOCUS-.... L
I
]
Figure 3-16
3-14.
Focused-Beam
Shortening
in Metal
LJ
surfaces into
and
noise beam.
are
by simply dis-
energy is being
a smaller
This
is true,
looked
will
be relatively indications.
combined of focused
of other
irrelevant is approximately
The
range
Contact angle-beam
and in one
one face
of the test
is made
N_
EXTERNAL
_11111111111111111111_
......
Figure These 3-16, ground. grounded. coaxial are 7. The tics higher higher The cable completely 3-15. Contact are used Transducer, only Externally Grounded materials as shown for are since including with
on electrically-conductive the unit is faced, transducers transducers water-proofed, of the crystal provides
reasonably
When face
immersion-type completely
immersion-type
SELECTION is a determining for sensitivity. the frequency the but contact wavelength; and crystal. factor Sensitivity the crystal Most testing in its shorter use. the Basic characteristhe the related. is done at to 10 Mc
frequency,
frequencies
between
3-17
CASE
.................................................... S,GNAL
iii! / CONNECTOR
I
CONNECTOR - ELECTRODES
Ii;iiii!ii:i ;i
_" WEAR P_T: RYSTAL
3-16. for
the
straighter and
(least
spread) atten-
sensitivity
resolution,
penetration
is poor. the deeper spread, the the penetration less the and the
of a transducer, greater
attenuation;
but the
the beam
sensitivity
resolution. given but the frequency, less the the larger the transducer, the straighter the sound-
c.
At any beam,
sensitivity.
COUPLANTS GENERAL couplant, efficient between of liquids, as the A couplant sound this the name implies, between from out the and the pastes, couples the the transducer face to test of the The some to the and the surface. test surface can that couplant solids, surface test The of the surface couplant and will test to enac-
is used transmission
transducer
by excluding the
requirements: A couplant transducer A couplant wets both the and excludes is easy surface all air of the between test specimen them. and the face of the
b.
to apply.
3-18
c.
A couplant is homogeneous case of a nonsolid. A eouplant A couplant A couplant the test is harmless has has specimen, COUPLANT nothing for at 70F COUPLANT the by the is often rough Heavier choice used of couplant on relatively light couplant oils are more a tendency an acoustic preferably
and
free
of air
bubbles,
or solid
particles
in the
d. e. f.
to the
test
and transducer. surface, that but of the test is easy transducer surface. to remove. face and
to stay
impedance
approaching
that
of the
2.
IMMERSION testing,
than
clean, controls.
deaerated comfort,
tap
with
an added is
is used
a couplant. by automatic
For
operator
temperature
of the and
sura
contacted slightly
transducer.
One-part
couplant. agent,
surfaces, the
a wetting effective,
on hot with
or vertical
selected
as possible,
STANDARD GENERAL
REFERENCE
BLOCKS
are of many
stanof called and two as reof the the test reference selected, indication size
discontinuity
indication
Standardizing is performing all discontinuities within with carefully of sound so that most the the them from
instrument/transducer or gain the size, test be detected. by comparing of known Standard to meet are was made added series Evaluation
combination at which
a sensitivity
the
in a,standard
Discontinuities
represented
intentionally. area/amplitude
familiar Alcoa
3-19
Hltt, distance/amplitude blocks; andthe ASTM basic set of blocks that combine area/ and distance/amplitude blocks in one set. 2.
The each the FBH that screen square. block. No. hole is, AREA/AMPLITUDE Alcoa series A 3/4-inch The diameter, blocks confirm they hole as 8 block, A set BLOCKS consists diameters e.g., that a No. the SET blocks, hole 1/64-inch 3-17. has 3 3/4-inches is drilled No. in the As implied, a 3/64-inch the of the in size from 2-inch of checking (height) increase made long 1 block the block diameter linearity indication of the diameter and through numbers of the on the round test 1 15/16-inches center 8/64-inch refer hole. system; Similar stock. of in to the
of eight are
deep shown
flat-bottomed in Figure
(FBH)
in the bottom
3 block a means
flat-bottomed oscilloscope
Area/amplitude increases
provide
discontinuity.
area/amplltude
TEST SURFACE
NO. 5
NO. 6
NO. 7
NO. 13
Fl
r-1
F-1
[--I
II II
5/64
Ii I I II I I ___LA_ _1_1_
6/64 7/64 ENLARGED VIEW OF HOLES (NO. I THROUGH NO. 4 HOLES NOT SHOWN)
I I ii I I
8/64
Figure 3. The center 3/64, inch half-inch a reference material. or gain screen with 3-20 for DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE Alcoa all series with end. from and 1-inch B or Hitt 3/4-inch These the 8/64-inch as the serve
3-17.
Reference
Blocks
set vary
of nineteen holes of the to provide metal and 1-1/4 at varying setting readable over, are or
blocks,
flat-bottomed surface
to 5-3/4-inches
flat-bottom The
1/16-inch, 5-3/4-inch blocks within the on the the serve the test sensitivity
in eightg-tnch
increments, in Figure 3-18. for display size and that of discontinuities it will
system of smaller
oscilloscope screen so
discontinuities
not flood
indications
of no interest.
On instruments
---- 2
1/8 DIMENSION 1/4 A 318
112 A
!
i
2 3 3 4 4 5 5
C
equipped, tance cation the front these amplitude of the
Figure
3-18
Distance/Amplitude
Reference
Blocks
(Hitt)
blocks correction)
are
used
to
set
the
STC
time size
control) will
or produce
DAC an
(disindifrom
so that on the
a discontinuity oscilloscope
same
amplitude
regardless
of its
distance
surface.
4. The
BASIC ASTM
SET consists in the each and 6 of ten center have inches diameter No. relationship, metal set. test distances, It is 3, 5, 2-inch at one from a 5/64-inch from FBH and and the and blocks end. the FBH test that One test and also block surface metal to the have has 3/4-inch a 3/4-inch flat-bottom of 1/8, The inches metal the two and 6 deep, diameter hole. 1/4, remaininches. prodiameter relationship. material be degree properties must be the same, flat-
distar_ce blocks 3,
of 3 inches
to the
surface
metal
basic
distance,
area/amplitude 5) and shows to that working If test attenuation, varying a basic of the from blocks
blocks the
5/64-Inch
(No. 3-19
the
similar cold
specimen. rolling,
forging,
material. In sound
material impedance.
available,
3-21
.....
I
METAL DISTANCE (SEE TABLE) I --,,,-3/4 INCH
METAL
DISTANCE,
INCHES INCH
1/8 5
1/4 5
1/2 5
3/4 5
1-1/2 5
3 3
3 5
3 8
6 5
6 8
3-19.
ASTM
Refereace
Blocks,
Basic
Set
Institute shown
of Welding) in Figure
angle one
beam of the
standards
in common
irregularly-shaped
HOLE
""'
40" 2 DIA HOLE
50"
60"
'
'L
_.09
I
"_
I
POINT SURFACE A
L-I_ _ J II
SURFACE D
I lea .
i II
II I_T,1 I INSERT
II II II Ii
._._L._, I, "PLASTIC
I I I I "_''"_ SU RFACE B
I
ii iiii i
__UlllATURE
ANGLE BEAM
F_re 3-22
3-20.
Special
Reference
Blocks
test
artificial cases,
discontinuities these by careful the basis artificial study for machining in the
form article.
of
fiat-bottom tinuities In other structive standard. 306 I. Several these quency with
In some
ultrasonically,
investigation.
TESTING
EQUIPMENT
equipment shows
are
commercially. method and of a typical either The variable high Wide tuning inductor tuning
in the
is modulated
of 15-30 for
accuracy harmonic
?CALES
$_EP
AMPLIFIER TRANSDUCER
_. STEEL MIO ALUMml,m THICKIILr!;S M THOUSJ_MDTH$ OF" All IliCH ,._
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
4;
I_Xji
I _C_ t,STANDING , ki!
_ll
;
IJ I
WAVES
TEST
SPECIMEN
Figure
3-21.
Functional
Diagram,
Resonance
Thickness
Tester 3-23
used for coverage of a wide thickness range. Typical wide-scale ranges are 0. 080to 0.640 inch at 0.75 to 1.5 Mc and 0.065 to 0.510 inch at 1 to 2 Mc. 2.
tor
INDUCTANCE-MODULATEDINSTRUMENT (Figure
instruments control when current frequencies of steel may oscillator extension distance of the be read plastic, to the cables to 25 feet Inductance-modulated have an electrically inductor have attained, circuit. range. therefore, measurements up to 3 inches, made length at high the the of transparent from the The on the variable instruments near 30 Mc are by use over the and aluminum directly placed transducer are inserted
3-22
and
Inductance-modulated tuning tance; eating nesses, scales, cable feet from tend
inductor
is adjusted are
at a minimum
is usually
frequencies
instrument, working
Figure 3.
3-22.
Meter-Type
Tester,
Inductance
Modulated
CAPACITANCE-MODULATED instruments whose display, of the trace motor-driven of the frequencies, indications in Figure disc rotates rotor the across rotation the
Capacitance-modulated driven For zontal change horizontal range has of harmonic instrument, the 3-24 outer capacitor oscilloscope sweep of the axis
circuit circuit
which
is connected
through Each
of the produces
is synchronized cycle frequency range. vertically, The a neon lamp neon with the
cathode-ray
on the
stroboscopic-type in phase
shown As the
3-23.
quadrant
flashes
a pattern then
of apparently
stationary harmonic
shown) until division lines most nearly indicator then points to the thickness,
Figure
x._j
3-24.
Stroboscopic-Type
Thickness
Tester,
Capacitance
Modulated 3-25
4.
MANUALLY-TUNED instruments units. Figure is manually modulating over a very range If this tone by increased on a circular table. in thick Using plates: Mc.
INSTRUMENTS are tuned. ranges. narrow produces deflection slide wide rule usually shows The range, a resonant of a panel attached the an 8-inch width sweeps pitch at 100 These small, instruments such portable are as 0.5 units available type to 2.0 from the that are with percent test less for either of the complicated a resonance narrow is base an is or
Manually-tuned than wide the larger that frequency tuned system manually frequency. audible indicated is made version ities quency resonance signal produces
3-25
a typical
functional
diagram
narrow-modulating frequency meter. instrument thick per steel Mc, second is 0.1 indication, of the
of instrument specimen,
is produced
in a loudspeaker
for
If the Modulating
sweep
produces sound.
A decrease decrease
in thickness in the
discontinuity
a proportionate
INDICATOR LOADING
lq
CRYSTAL
V
I
__COUPLANT
HEADSET
I I I
MANUAL TUNING
3-25. TESTER
Functional
Diagram,
Manually-Tuned
Resonance
Tester
tester
instrument The unit The of the amplitude. amplitude oscilloscope pattern to a bonded and therefore
used
for
lack face
varlable-frequency
vibration transducer
as a distinctive
is acoustically resistance
information
vibration,
to vibration,
its physical
characteristics,
3-26
shown patterns
on the are
Figure face
3-26
shows oscilloscope
of bond
testers.
Typical
test
of each
TUNING 3 7 @ 21 SWEEP50_160 :
@
i SENSITIVITY3_60i 21
0
INTENSITY
0
FOCUS
I
I
FREQ SHIFT
POWER
CAL
_ OFF
OUTPUT
ON
r_
Figure 6. RESONANCE instrument may indicate are a. INSTRUMENT indications screen. resonant Audible responses. in the following
3-26.
Bond
Testers
INDICATIONS are of two basic lights, heard type Each notes, types; from visual or audible. Visual lights, automatic or reof head-
be displayed
by warning
on a meter, of indication
by stroboscopic including
on an oscilloscope
a loudspeaker
or a pair
discussed
paragraphs. resonance the operating tube. portable presentation. sweep of the rule instrument The oscilharmonic indications cathode ray frequency are tubes, presented with range a time of the
Oscilloscope peaks which cathode One type with cover are ray
on large-screen interpreted
17 to 21 inches
indications
by placing
a transparent
b.
a capacitance-modulated, in conjunction
motor-driven,
arrangement
3-27
matching type. A small neon lamp, shownin Figure 3-27, is made to flash at the instant the sweep capacitor sweeps the oscillator through the fundamental frequency or any harmonic frequency. This neon lamp is fastened to a disc that rotates with the sweepcapacitor, and is viewed through an arcshapedwindow under a circular slide rule. The stroboscopic effect of the rotating disc results in a steady light pattern related to the thickness of the test specimen. The slide rule is then rotated until the m_rks on its harmonic scale match up with the light pattern. The thickness of the test specimen is then read on the thickness scale.
/NEON
BULB
/,_CASE
THICKNESS
SCALE
HARMONIC
SCALE
ROTATING
'sc
,.-"
Figure
C.
3-27.
Stroboscopic
Light
Display For field work, other with meters, warning a resonant in a loudspeaker on the variations on a finger of the frequency or a hand instrument; or discon-
Headphone, Meter or Warning Light Indication. battery-powered units are equipped for indication lights, from the headset. in others, holding tinuities or headphones. test With specimen, some units, that When the instrument tone lights up when are an audible warning lights
is produced lamp,
a wire
is connected
to a ring
thickness
d,
For The
automatic
recording thickness
of the range
circuits
to oscilloscope
to detect
resonance of the
allowable
determines the width on the screen of the The gated gate signal is adjusted
a strong the
a "normal" of this
condition
gated
A loss a recir-
in turn
marking device, automatic sorter, Into a number of groups according used, as they do not Interfere with
7.
used variety The range normally range.
TRANSDUCERS with
TESTING ceramic, types applications, to the an oscillator frequency frequency sensitive and barium as titanate are are generally in a 3-28. For is tuning
Transducers
testing. specific transducer For than operating transducer REFERENCE units require
Many test
and
sizes
in Figure
of the selected.
example,
an oscillator 10 to 20 percent
a 4 to 8 Mc tuning
of the of the
in relation frequency.
to sensitivity. 8.
BLOCKS the test. use The The selected. On these of reference equipment thickness Standard blocks, the standards is standardized and material reference thicknesses thickness for adjusting to the of the blocks, in steps at each or test retest
at the beginning
of each with
test. the
reference carefully
block ground
to predetermined
degree
of taper.
FINGERTIP
PENCIL
SWIVEL
RIGID
RIGHT
ANGLE
STRAIGHT RIGID
CONCAVE SPRING
FLAT SPRING
Figure
3-28.
Resonance
Transducers 3-29
0.5
1.0
2.0 FREQUENCY
3.0 IN MEGACYCLES
4.0
6.0
8.0
10
3-29.
Operating
Frequency with
Range calipers or
micrometers,
is used
standardizing
instrument.
3-30
CHAPTER TABLE
4: OF
TECHNIQUES CONTENTS
Paragraph 40O 401 GENERAL IMMERSION 1. 2. 3. 4. 402 General Immersed ...................................... TECHNIQUES Techniques ........................... ........................... ............................. Techniques ..................... .....................................
Page 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-7 4-7 4-7 4-7 4-8 4-10 4-11 4-11 4-11 4-12 4-12 4-13 4-13 4-13 Procedure Testing ................. System ............ .................. 4-13 4-17 4-19 4-23 4-28 4-28 4-29 4-34 4-41 4-41 ................. 1-42 4-43 4-46 . ............ .............. 4-6 4-6 4-7
CONTAC T TECHNIQUE S ............................ 1. General ..................................... 2. Straight-Beam Techniques Techniques Techniques FOR TESTING .................................... Selection Selection ............................ ........................... ............................ ............................. Testing Immersion Testing ........................ ......................... ......................... ........................ 3. Angle-Beam 4. Surface-Wave PREPARATION 1. 2. 3. General Frequency Transducer
403
404
r_ _
4. Reference Standards TESTING PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. General Typical Immersion Standardizing the Typical Contact
....................................
Procedure
405
Contact Testing Procedure ............... OF TEST RESULTS .................. .................................... .................. ....................
406
RESONANCE 1. General 2. Typical 3. Typical REFERENCE 4-1 4-2 4-3 Bubbler Water-Path Stationary
TECHNIQUE ........................... .................................... Resonance Resonance TABLES Testing Procedure Test Results ............................. ....................
TABLE OF CONTENTS
{CONT)
Page
Paragraph Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11 Figure 4-12 Figure 4-13 Figure 4-14 Figure 4-15 Figure 4-16 Figure 4-17 Figure 4-18 Figure 4-19 Figure 4-20 Figure 4-21 Figure 4-22 Figure 4-23 Figure 4-24 Figure 4-25 Figure 4-26 Figure 4-27 Figure 4-28 Figure 4-29 Figure 4-30 Figure 4-31 Figure 4-32 Figure 4-33 Figure 4-34 Figure 4-35 Figure 4-36 Figure 4-37 Figure 4-38 Figure 4-39 Figure 4-40 Figure 4-41
Wheel Transducer Angular Capabilities ............... .................. ................. ..................
Single-Transducer Double-Transducer
Through-Transmission Shear-Wave Technique Surface-Wave Typical Transducer Sweep Delay Technique Immersion
System
Adjustment, Adjustment
4-15 4-16 4-17 4-18 4-19 4-20 4-21 4-21 4-22 4-23 4-23
Sweep Adjustment ............................. Standardizing Indications ......................... Typical Contact Contact Testing System Reference ......................... Plate ....................
Adjustment
Sweep Delay Effect ............................ Test Hole Size Comparison ....................... IIW Test IIW Test IIW Test I1W Test Weld Test Block, Block, Block, Block, Basic Lucite Indications Checking Path Sweep Wedge Length from Sensitivity ......................... ......... Adjustment ......... . . . ..... Sound-Path Increased Measurement Sensitivity
4-24 4-25 4-26 4-26 4-27 4-27 4-28 ..... 4-30 4-30 4-31 4-31 4-32 4-33 4-34
.................
Scanning
Butt-Weld Testing With Angle-Beam Transducer Weld Inspection Calculator ....................... Force-Oriented Discontinuity ...................... Amplitude Range of 1/64 to 8/64 Flat-Bottomed
Holes
Large Discontinuity Indications .................... Reduced Back Reflections from Porosity .............. Irrelevant Indication from Contoured Surface ........... Grain Long Size and Indications Interference Short Pulse .......................... ......................... Effects on Display .............. Discontinuity Indications .......... on Back-Reflection Multiples ....... Angle-Beam Contact Technique ............ Technique ..... ..... Dead-Zone
Typical Contact Test Effect of Lamination W4d Indications Using Porosity Surface
V
4-2
TABLE Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table Table Table 4-42 4-43 4-44 4-45 4-46 4-47 4-48 4-49 4-50 4-51 4-52 4-53 4-54 4-55 4-56 4-57 4-1 4-2 4-3 Two-Transducer
OF
CONTENTS
(CONT) Page
Indic ations
....................... Discontinuity ......................... Cylindrical Long Bar ............... Specimen Specimen .......... .......... . . . ......
4-37 4-38 4-38 4-38 4-39 4-39 4-39 4-40 4-40 4-41 4-43 4-43 4-44 4-44 4-45 4-46 4-46 4-47 4-48
Indication of Near-Surface Coarse Grain Indications Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Indication Indication Surface-Wave Surface-Wave Indication Indication from from from from
Wedge Transducer
Standing Wave Patterns Resonance Test Blocks Typical Resonance CRT Transparent CRT Display CRT Bond Displays Tester
Properties Testing,
of Materials Constant
v_j
2.
2.
PREGED1,NG
AGF= BLANK
NOT
_ILMED.
CHAPTER 400 GENERAL of ultrasonic or immersion with units, of the shows close from path between first, the the test crystal. the test the initial plastic through together. or column. initial in water. with coverage testing testing. specimen, wedges, These a substance pulse In immersion specimen, The pulse with water and are with wear units other and the the the
4:
TECHNIQUES
Techniques contact contact contact the face transmitted usually very tance a water space velocity discussed 401 1. Any where squirter water; transducer tube. surface. transducers through in Figure 2. In the
one film
methods: in direct On some mounted soundbeam unit or at a disthrough wide reduced are over is
In contact
transducer membranes
superimposed
ultrasound
of sound
In the
immersion
of contact
TECHNIQUES
in the test
technique, bubbler In the wheelto the passed are shown test or axfe of flowing
both
and wheel-transducer technique In all three that 4-1. TECHNIQUES technique, soundbeam technique a magnifying
transducer
of a liquid-filled A flexible
of a water-filled of focused
membrane concentrate
techniques,
a further
refinement
wheel-transducer
techniques
both for
the
transducer through
and the
the
test into
are of the
in water.
is directed generating
water
a straight-beam beam techniques focused-beams continuities The the transducers both soundbeam with
longitudinal
waves
for generating shear waves. are used to detect near-surface the concentrated used and The soundbeam. in immersion angle-beam water-path
usually straightdirection.
are must
units and
that
acof
complTsh
through
control
in immersion 4-5
TIRE
0 ,
SUPPLY WHEEL-TRANSDUCER
T .NSO, C
TECHNIQUE
BUBBLER TECHNIQUE
Figure
4-1.
Bubbler
and Wheel-Transducer
Techniques
testing. This through test pear tions. inch metal of the when and area shows
This distance
is the
distance
face the
of the
and
the
test
is usually When oscilloscope sound will 1/4 path in steel. plus area
adjusted done
so that
ttme required
to send
the
soundbeam will not surface therefore, inches thickness important signalling the test 4-2
is greater
reflection
reflec-
of aluminum
of thumb correct
is particularly
operations. path
Careful cause
misinterpretation.
Figure
relationship.
Figure
4-2.
Water-Path
Distance
Adjustment
4-6
3. The
BUBBLER bubbler
TECHNIQUES is essentially through an automated and other through test surface shear a variation a water system a column for waves. TECHNIQUES is an aspect a water-filled axle, may is held of the tire immersion into the test method specimen. while apparatus where wheel moving in that the column for of the into high-speed water, waves immersion test scanning parts. The and method, of plate, soundbeam is directed where The sheet, is pronormal at an angle the
the
specimen.
bubbler
cylindrical
(perpendicular) surface
or is adjusted
WHEEL-TRANSDUCER wheel-transducer is projected mounted rotate the past The as freely. it. Figure and material, position to project shown technique through in the The
soundbeam transducer, and tire across is moved ducer. constructed beams 402 i. Contact soundbeam waves in the surface-wave
The the wheel that the axle wheel runs material transmay angled be
wheel wheel
in a fixed
be mounted the
on a mobile
transducer shown
straight-beams,as
or to project
in Figure
TECHNIQUES
are mode
into
three
which for
are
determined shear
technique or Lamb
transmitting Transducers
specimen,
generating waves.
technique
producing
.WATER-FILLED
TIRE
WATER-FILLED TRANSDUCER.
TIRE _
/_/TRANSDUCER
MATER,AL I MOVES
Figure
4-3.
Stationary
and
Moving
Wheel
Transducers
SOUND
BEAM
DIRECTED
IN FORWARD
DIRECTION
=,,,,"
SOUND
PROPAGATED
INTO
MATERIAL
AT 45 ANGLE
SOUND
BEAM
DIRECTED
TO THE
SIDE
90"
SOUND
BEAM
ANGLED
TO THE
SIDE
AND
FORWARD
ANGLE
OF PROPAGATION POSITION
MAY OF WHEEL
BE VARIED MOUNTING
BY YOKE
ADJUSTING
4-4. held
Wheel
Capabilities
v
in direct selected using a thin, to remain is relatively transducers liquid thin; and film test recouplant is high enough in viscosity the eouplant on contact on the surface during fer to Chapter couplant 2. The s. STRAIGHT-BEAM straight-beam TECHNIQUES is accomplished test surface) by projecting to obtain where in the are a soundbeam reflections into the from test the to test the test. For 3: Equipment, most contact testing, for more information
technique
specimen
(perpendicular
to the
or from intermediate discontinuities. transmission with two transducers, soundbeam, Techniques. transducers. in use. With receiver, causing Echo a reduction reflections
signal. or double,straight-
produced
with single
Figure 4-5 shows the single the single unit, the transducer a beam of longitudinal
unit, straight-beam transacts as both transmitter waves into the specimen and
projecting
reflected from the back surface and from any discontinuity path. The double transducer unit is useful when the test or when the specimen shape is irregular and the back sur-
TRANSDUCER
t
I I
I
..J
I I
I I
..J
Technique transducer case, even tzansmits the though receiver the transand unit
In this echoes,
Is receiving mitter
b,
unit
is not directly
reflectors.
Throu_h-Transmission through-transmission shown receiver. the ties beam in the is picked energy in Figure The travels up at the path reaching the 4-7.
Techniques. Two transducers are used in the technique, one on each side of the test specimen One unit unit the acts as a transmitter a soundbeam to the by the cause unit. For opposite receiving best results and into unit. in the the the Any amount other as a transmitter through opposite receiving of the projects material; and the
as
material surface
surface;
sound
soundbeam
a reduction
in this
technique,
UNIT
//
/
\\
\__/
/
/ _..-SOUND REFLECTED TO
UNIT RECEIVING
\-
Figure
4-6.
Double-Transducer
Echo
Technique
TRANSMITTING
UNIT
UNIT
i
_DISCONTINUITY REDUCES AMOUNT OF ENERGY TO RECEIVING UNIT
Figure transmitter unit and the receiver energy. lithium 3. The modes Figure fusion ANGLE-BEAM angle-beam produced modes. 4-8 from
4-7.
Through-Transmission
Technique available generaLor of acoustic energy, best available receiver of acoustic transmitter unit is used with a
titanate
to transmit may
sound
the and
test shear,
predetermined or surface
surface.
selected, in angle-beam
shear-wave
scanning plate and pipe material. To avoid coneffects encountered with strai_ht-beam trans-
TRANSDUCER
TRANSDUCER
/ /
\ \ /
Figure
4-8.
Shear-Wave
Technique
ducers, this rupted flected unit, zig-zag welds, where ducers indicate 4. The
parts
with the
less enters
inch
are
tested
with
angle-beam angle until direction the used and and because for
In
technique,
specimen
it is interangle-beam testing
where
transducer.
Allowances
of penetration Angle-beam material, to contact that for show shear and all
is reduced
straight-beam
soundbeam waves.
and
of refraction
TECHNIQUES requires where transducers surface-wave TESTING special at a grazing near-surface are used technique angle-beam angle where or transducers almost all surface that of the surface 4-9. project beam are waves the is
specimen
discontinuities RayIeigh
surface-wave material.
to generate is shown
in Figure
with variables
test
specimen available
then,
from
to perform structures,
the test
be too large
case require
Figure
i
4-9.
Surface-Wave
Technique 4-11
equipment. material, etc.), and of identical with jobs study setting its may
Other test
factors
are: roughness,
the
number methods
of parts of joining
to be tested, (welded,
of
surface
the shape of the specimen. parts and a permanent test scanning with practical, an operating is established. or probable found to the parallel plate are in pipe and portable recording contact efficient frequency The
and a reference determine laminar plate the men 2. High sonic are common
standard common
discontinuities a sample
is a longitudinal to metallurgical
If possible,
testing,
10
maximum depth
of ultra-
to greater sensitivity.
material, test
of near-surface soundbeam
is used
to evaluate
penetration with a high-frequency Mc for contact) and observing back until may echo, several unit a lower back may frequency reflections to turn be used,
transducer (10 to 25 Mc for immersion and 5 to 10 total number of back reflections. If there is no Successively If near-surface retest following from and lower frequencies side, scan. are applied it obtained. over resolution the opposite is required, or a high-
is required.
be necessary
frequency 3. The
temporarily,
the low-frequency
in the
other
the
possibility
of using or,
using
is raised. angle-beam
transducers, test
10 Mc and testing,
15 Mc frequency,
In contact material.
4-12
4.
REFERENCE ultrasonic These properties In most from test the cases, the
STANDARDS reference standards are matched responses is sectioned, of the for material form in the comparison are standards adequate or nearly from from subjected and with level allowed is established its of holes are for described many test in the block in detail situations, test hole. test in Chapter provided specimen For analysis, introduced in other establishes In all application cases, of basic sample this and into the are reason, studied cases, sample the and the 3: the test likely a to
Commercial Equipment. acoustic block. to differ sample determine artificial to serve From and nature
specimen
discontinuities
in the
indications
received
specimen nature
discontinuities.
In some specimens.
magnitude of the
of discontinuities
is determined
of the
specimen
testing
by an intelligent
theory.
PROCEDURES L procedures for immersion procedures manuals and contact used testing in ultrasonic are intended testing. to clarify to familiarize Reference variations in to
with
basic
specific equipment
r
manufacturer nomenclature
is recommended
2. The
TYPICAL following
TESTING
PROCEDURE begins for the to Chapter immersion is adequate operator that for these with 3: the assumption testing Equipment, system. use in this with the procedure operating be repeated as a charfor that system all are
of equipment
immersion
at the
equipment
a 3-inch system,
simulated
specimen.
is familiar
it is recommended
procedures
the
transducer for
on the
lower
scanner between
tube. the
sure
the
O-ring is in place transducer. b. c. Connect Connect instrument d. Turn the the coaxial other panel.
a watertight
cable end
to the
upper
scanner "R"
tube. on the
of the
coaxial
receptacle
instrument
on and
allow
it to warm
up for
a few
minutes.
4-13
e,
Place
test
block
in tank
on underwater
f.
Lower scanner tube, by adjusting transducer face is about 2 inches Position (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) instrument panel controls
g.
- Set initial
pulse
at first
index
mark
on left
side
of
sc r e e n.
Off. or Through screwdriver do not Adjust of trace. burn for a line long level Transmission) controls require for Use or of brilliant periods. on the - Normal. display adjustment. visible inner trace face with of the no bright cathode-ray on the spot at unit may be adjusted.
(io) If required,
These (a) controls Intensity. left end nently screen
TANK WITH MOTORIZED
frequent
in adjusting,
as it is possible to remain
to permatube
if a high
BRIDGE
is allowed
_....._...--SCANNER
TUBE
.._..__
TRANSDUCER
<_
)! j>_
;ANIPULATOR
TEST
SPECIMEN
SUPPORT
FOR TEST
SPECIMEN
Typical Immersion
System
(b)
Positioning.
Place
sweep
start
at the
left
edge
of the
(c) (d)
Place
trace
ltne each
at zero for
scribe
line. on both
sharpest
trace
the
transducer
an area flat-bottomed
test
so that Adjust as
the the
hole test
perpendicular
surface
to obtain
maximum
io
oscilloscope visible screen. initial the screen transducer switch off the of the
is the sweep
which left
is always
is used
next
measured
of 2 inches
between
j.
Observe
to the
right
of the
first
front-surface
Using
the
tube slightly up and the first front-surface Some of the as fast as the multiples water-travel
back reflection remains constant. across the screen at a rate twice fast-moving surface
INITIAL PULSE
pips reflections).
are
called Adjust
water the
(second distance
BACK SURFACE
J
TRANSDUCER OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN,
L.) L..)
/TEST
[J r1 .
Figure 4-11. Transducer Adjustment, Normal to Test Surface 4-15
does
not appear
between
the
Adjust SWEEP DELAY and off the oscilloscope tioned shown under the first 4-12. In Figure
INITIAL PULSE -,_ _
pulse and the water path front-surface reflection side of the screen,
at the left
__ _._-_----'-]_
TOP SURFACE
SURFACE
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
Figure
,
4-12.
Sweep
Delay back
Adjust
SWEEP
to move
the first
reflection
first back reflection under screen, as shown in Figure the entire MARKERS. front-surface width of the the reflection. Align square
line at the right side of the depth is presented across of depth the is desired, edge or contracted turn as on leading of the first
screen. The
If measurement markers
be expanded
TOP SURFACE
___
BACK SURFACE
PE =
Figure 4-16
4-13.
Sweep
Adjustment
desired
m,
or centimeters until (FBH). transducer oscilloscope TESTING of responses specimen. of the test is set and turn the
depth maximum Increase back and screen. SYSTEM from In this specimen.
test
sensitivity over
forth
indications THE
3.
STANDARDIZING is defined the responses which and the Select tested. warm b. Place Select material up.
the test
properties
standardized, a.
sensitivity
properly,
a suitable
transducer
frequency on instrument,
being to
Set up equipment,
equipment
two Hitt (distance/amplitude) blocks of the same material should being have tested a metal and a 3/64-inch
test blocks in the immersion tank. as the material in the test specimen. nearest diameter to the thickness of the hole (FBH). flat-bottomed
One block
distance
(Note: If the metal distance of the longest available test block than the thickness of the test specimen, refer to step f.) The should distance c. Position off-center, from the multiple between tiple the pips match should the front the first be 1/2 block, inch. over to the of the the upper surface Adjust to the block of the longest including the No. 3 FBH, except
block, the
slightly water
surface.
distance
transducer
front-surface front and the screen. as fast maximum The as the height pips the
reflection) indication or pip does not appear first back-surface reflections. Water multhe transducer multiple reflections. pip. same top surface the pips up and move Manipulate This purpose. from of the block. down across the indication Move the signal first and the observing screen assures the FBH. strength second FBH of 3 pip pip is transwater other to the will
identified
by moving
oscilloscope
transducer A maximum
front-surface serve
the
is normal
number
response
is received
gain For
the
if the 4-14.
2 inches,
pip is 1 inch,
a combined
in Figure
4-17
e,
Without has one sure height previous bined less the than and
the FBH
instrument distance), pips the the pips the assures equal the and first
the
second the
test step.
block (Note:
(which of Due
minimum
display
previous
to the
combined
combined displayed
of the previous
combined
of the
3 inches), height.
increase
a matching to detect
combined
received
instrument which
operator size
and in the (f.), metal a special length. hole drilled Practice and
are
Disregard step
testing. available of the and machined this block, to make block c. and V the transevidence the until gain mateof the in
is not required (referred tested. material diameter with with test steps the the test lower the
longest
block being
is shorter
is manufactured
required
block in the
worthwhile, available steps Move pips duration, for increase Perform pips.
block,
of attenuation. or sensitivity,
If there
either pulse
or lengthen
.:
OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN
JJl
IL.
Standardizing Indications
BACK-SURFACE FLAT-BOTTOM
WATER-MULTIPLE
PIP
Figure 4-18
4-14.
components
of equipment
in this
operator
is familiar
procedures cable
receptacle transducer
contact
on the
allow control
up for
a few minutes.
frequency
(5 Mc).
from
maximum division.
- Set initial
pulse
at first
index
mark
on left
side
of
COUPLANT__----_'_'_
/TESTSPECIMEN
II
I1
II
Figure x_,-
4-15.
Typical
Contact
System 4-19
(8) Markers - Off. (9) Test (Normal or Through Transmission) - Normal. e. Place a few drops of couplant (oil) on edge surface of test plate opposite large test hole. Hold transducer in contact with test block at oiled surface as shownin Figure 4-16. Observe indications or pips appearing on the oscilloscope screen. Move the transducer back and forth over the oiled surface and observe the changes shown on the screen. Position the transducer over the large hole in the test block and vary the amplitude of the indications by adjusting the SENSITIVITY control. Set control so that the back-surface pip is 3 inches high. Vary the PULSE LENGTH control and study the action displayed on the screen. Short pulse increases resolution, and long pulse increases penetration. Turn on the REJECT control and observe the effects on the display. Note that the smallest pips disappear completely when enoughreject is applied. REJECT is used to clip off "grass" or unwantedsignals as shownin Figure 4-17. Turn REJECT OFF for remainder of test. Move transducer to area of test block where hole reflection pips are eliminated. Only the initial pulse and the back reflection are shownon the screen. Vary SWEEPcontrols to causethe back reflection to move to the left toward the initial pulse. Observe that more pips appear and move in from the right side of the screen, as shownin Figure 4-18. The new pips are multiples of the first back reflection and are equally spaced on the trace. The SWEEP controls may be adjusted to enable the operator to see more time, or more depth in the material. In other words, if the metal distance from top to
TRAN_;DUCER _.A..I COUPLANT
f.
g.
h.
i.
II II
Figure 4-16. Contact Testing
iI II
Reference
II Ii II
Plate
4-20
REJECT OFF
ON
Reject
Effects reflection back and turn on the and on represents forth. the alternate MARKER. trace, Obbelow 60 inches
of soundbeam j. Remove serve the (1) the main Turn marker (2) Adjust the
beam the
test
Adjust FINE
ALTERNATE to position
SHIFT trace
with trace
/BACK
_/FIRST
BACK
/1/PULSE/
PULsEINITIA[\f
_",_ACE
PiP
SWEEP
Figure _-J
4-18.
Back-Reflection
Multiples 4-21
(3)
Adjust start
SHIFT first
HORIZONTAL marker
control, with
with the
screwdriver,
to coincide
(4)
on the back
test
only
on the
screen.
to position
reflection full
square
waves,
shown and
in Figure
edge
pulse
reflection. over test block full hole Try square and measure to the Turn back depth other inch, and the MARKER reflection has familiar screen. viewed back operator area pulse area of the on the the the initial of hole for test by
(5)
measurement example, block, OFF. left off at As to see to be onto switch to the moved material with
two or more
square
is fully
ko
in previous
"i. ",
Move
Position
the
transducer to obtain
over
the
largest hole
hole signal,
in the
test
block,
and
set
the
SENSITIVITY
a 2 1/2-inch
as shown
in Figure
4-21.
BACK
INITIAL _/FIRST
I
,
I
,
UP
I
,
PULSE<
\//_SUR FACE
PIP
I
i ..... i
I
' I FULL SQUARE
I
i
Marker
Adjustment
SURFACE / /
_J!____
..,__TIM E SEGMENT. ,,,.. / INCREASED S ---_ EXPOSEDwEEPDELAY _
4-20. the
Effect and size observe 4-21. of the the difference that in the
the
over
height
signals,
in Figure
of signal
amplitude control
is related and
on the REJECT may affect its signal use from CONTACT testing
repeat lineartty.
step of the
Observe control
use is used
of rewith diffichecking
reject to leave
discretion; responses
may
or impossible.
5. The
ANGLE-BEAM angle-beam
INITIAL _
TESTING procedure
/HOLE
contact
SENSITIVITY
ADJUSTED
FOR 2-1/2-INCH
_,
COMPARABLE
SIZE OF SIGNAL
HOLE
Figure MJ
4-21.
Test
Hole
Size
Comparision 4-23
for straight-beam testing, except that the soundbeamenters the test material at an angle to the surface contacted. An I.I.W. (International Institute of Welding) test block is recommended for use in this procedure as a simulated test specimen. a.
b.
frequency
(5 Mc).
from
maximum division.
- Set initial
pulse
at first
index
mark
on left
side
of
Off. or Through of couplant Transmission) (oil) on edge - Normal. surface as of test shown appear block. in Figure at equal Hold 4-22. intervals the
a few
transducer LENGTH
on the so that
oiled five
screen
as shown
in Figure
_L
O--..--------
"7-4 6
WAVES, A IN.
10
TRANSVERSE
Figure 4-24
4-22.
IIW Test
Block,
Basic
Sweep
Length
Adjustment
e. f.
Remove the straight-beam transducer and replace it with a 2.25 Mc anglebeam transducer. Reset frequency control on instrument panel. Place the angle-beam transducer on the test block as shown in Figure 4-23. Note that with the angle-beam unit, the initial pulse is broadened and small signals appear close behind it. This is a result of reverberations within the plastic wedge on the transducer. These signals are normal and shouldnot be confused with signals from discontinuities or the back reflection. Observe the location of the back reflection received from the test block arc. Note the distance betweenthe 4-inch mark andthe back reflection pip. This is the distance represented by soundtravel in the Lucite wedge on the transducer. Adjust SWEEP LENGTH so that the reflection from the arc occurs at the 4inch mark. Distance on the screen now accurately represents distance of soundtravel in the test block. Increase the instrument sensitivity to sucha level that reflections from the 0. 060-inch hole andthe 90 groove in the test block can be recognized.
These adjust reflections instrument 4-24. angle-beam in Figure reflection specification, Is exactly sweep and transducer 4-25. adjust that the Move the given sensitivity ts obtained in each the for each In the of the indication control specification. instrument is standardized to positions at each shown. until the indicated position, When on the until working of the occur near the 8- and to obtain 9-inch marks on the similar screen. to those Reshown as necessary indications
g.
h.
I.
transducer,
sensitivity
amplitude
Now that
the
of the
--J
"III 0 'III 2 III 4 II 6 _[I-I 1 Ill 8
it11
I0
----I A
A = SOUND PATH LENGTH IN LUCITE B
Figure _'_
4-23.
IIW Test
Block,
Lucite
Wedge
Sound-Path
Measurement 4-25
-.
k
0 1 2 .3 4
t'".
C Indications steel angle-beam the and
tt
on the
10
4-24.
IIW
Test
Increased a butt-weld butt-welded of the reduced seam, center the Figure weld. surface unit 4-26,
Sensitivity in a steel steel plate plate by on 1/2 seam. the the skip With path
test
alongside touching screen. distance the from along couplant, along the aid
skip observing
to the from
of the
other,
Contact, must
between scanning
the
scanning
until
a discontinuity
/
-.. _.
,]-
=-
7 Figure
Illilll 8 IIW
9 Test
I0 D Block,
2 Sensitivity
10
4-25.
Checking
V
4-26
_CHALK
MARKS
Figure
I.
4-26.
Weld
Path in Figure time and 4-27. unnecessary over the To acsketch or by effort. trans-
The using
path the
curately
by making that
a scale
considerable calculator
by using
is mounted
4-28 shows
shows area
how the
The
bottom The
part of the
of the
illusscreen
a section shows
of the a plan
position
soundbeam.
center
calculator.
instrument
is shown at the top. The calculator has of the soundbeam, under the transducer, rule. The slider has been adjusted for
been adjusted so that the entry point coincides with the 0 point on the the exact thickness of the plate
E - THE ENTRY POINT OF THE SO'UND BEAM. - THE EXACT ANGLE OF THE BEAM. E T - THE THICKNESS OF THE PLATE.
__.._
Figure
4-27.
Butt-Weld
Testing
with
Angle--Beam
Transducer 4-27
OSCILLOSCOPE
SCREEN
,NIT,AL
PULSE---__
1t11111
B I I
nl _ " .t "_,.
lllJ_"-I
_I 1 41 ,
I
o,,../r_uL._ " 35MM
SCALE
OF SHEET
J I J'
" .3_.5/- f
._
_ I
I cil_ _
_----.
DEPTH OF DISCONTINUITY
, \
,I i
I IL
l_\x
_" TRANSDUCER
I I''%
,_ I /
I ,I DISCONTINUITY
I
LOCATION
r---
I i
I
15MM,,.<._/
I
'1 TEST SPECIMEN
"
Figure (30mm) on the the same thickness fracted changeable, 405 i. INTERPRETATION GENERAL test holes evaluating Test are This to the of the are indications of varying the size, conditions, sometimes difficulty probable material, all considered from
4-28.
Calculator line, representing off the the beam screen, path, and at re-
discontinuity
is read
point on the rule, the depth of the discontinuity is read on the scale. These calculators are available for each of the various angles in standard e.g., OF angle-beam transducers. transducer requires They are not inter-
a 45 calculator.
Ultrasonic are rate usually for bottomed nuities. themselves, interpret. indications Impedance of incidence 4-28
the
test are
related
or compared depths
having
discontinuities
of ultrasonic with
in relating
surface
attenuation,
location
of an unknown
discontinuity
i
echo
The
simplest shape,
the
discontitest speci-
block and
to the
learns
indications
of no interest,
or irrelevant
indications. 2. TYPICAL test IMMERSION indications, and that TEST generally of three are As not the factors: small, surface distance INDICATIONS displayed amplitude compared the of the as the size that case, the of discontinuity amplitudes test of the are is moved surface on A-scan from with pulse-echo from surfaces the the of the specimen of the larger over does reflection so that test than the has discontinuity the test units, of the crystal the surface and crystal specimen the energy size extent that the are article. diamechoes of a flata bit diamwhile of the the
Immersion interpreted loss eter, with bottom smaller eter, are of back are the Individual
by analysis reflection, discontinuities usually test-block within in the the hole than
of reflection
a discontinuity,
transducer and
by comparing as smooth the estimated the In this amplitude refracted, this method the loss Discontinuities
test-specimen block
discontinuity
is generally
evaluated is still the length in one sound crystal. as the large with
distance the
crystal
an indication meaning; discontinuity transmitted turned nuity With rate through a. encountered materials discontinuities fiat and plane its to the as well relatively the display the
maintained. A loss
amplitude
no quantitative is evidence
or absence
not determine
reflection,
soundbeam
transmitted
discontinuity. Small Discontinuity in the Indications. of wrought ingot The shown block are to the to the forces in Figure test flat-bottomed east A significant aluminum rolled, used surface are forged, of the 4-29. block hole The number relatively or extruded tend Such part. of the discontinuities Foreign wafer-thin the disby in into
testing fabrication.
small. to orient
in fabricating
relationship
indications reflections,
is determined
b. Large Discontinuity with the crystal size, in Figure the still partial may receiving 4-31. or total
that are large, when comthat saturates the display, nearly the all The of the dimensions but is three4-29 sound of the is moved
as shown discontinuity
discontinuity reflection
is typical.
be determined an indication.
by measuring
transducer
discontinuity
is not fiat,
BACK SURFACE
DISCONTINUITY
_o_ _r-_'_\
Figure dimensional, over close and together, the scanning extent from 4-29. of the the Force-Oriented third side. article the dimension If the may Discontinuity may
_
Indication
__o_c_
be determined from
by turning sides.
the
article lying
back
possibility be tested
is suspected,
1/64
2/64
3/64
4/64
5/64
6/64
7/64
8/64
Figure 4-30
4-30.
Amplitude
Range
of 1/64
to 8/64
Flat-Bottomed
Holes
FRONT SURFACE
BACK
SURFACE
FRONT SURFACE
DISCONTINUITY
I
A
llll
/I I
FAE
4-31.
Large
Indication of back individual reflection, reflection are: is most large imIn this grain size,
it occurs
discontinuities.
porosity, indications
FRONT SURFACE
---J
I,---
SOUND
TEST
SPECIMEN
FRONT SURFACE
BACK
SURFACE
/ TEST
POROUS SPECIMEN
Figure
v
4-32.
Reduced
Back
Reflection
from
Porosity 4-31
unusually
appearance
transducer
from fillets and concave surfaces front and back surfaces which are These as the the flat the will areas, is moved be shielded metal, or pip, observed. of the to false rise time the area flat cause within the from spurious required test indications for specimen. of the front will the
may result in responses sometimes mistaken for result from sound from indication as the time, same the received to return will Moving
sound
a discontinuity results the transducer amplitude over amplitude back discontinuity to be consistent around a foreign pips, of back when shiny object
diminish
increase.
transducer as the
Reflections Broad-based a contoured no loss occurs smooth, a thick appeared with which
a contoured as contrasted
may
of sheet spike
shapes,
sometimes
transducer surfaces
of the
with
to be reflections
a discontinuity,
depth, the
were
surface
SURFACE
indication
SURFACE IRREVELANT
TRANSDUCER /
,.
//"'_'_
__CONTOUR
A Contoured Surface
and
magnitude. extremely
type with
results
from a
reflecting
from
by coating
or a very
of petroleum
Angled-Plane Discontinuity Indications. Discontinuities oriented with plane at an angle to the front surface _ire sometimes difficult to detect Usually, it is best to detect the area to scan angled-plane of the plane. at an angle transducer forgings to cause With initially discontinuity, the large at a comparatively The to evaluate soundbeam surface, the because category, discontinuities of the and high transducer its magnitude. to strike that indication tend the have moves change to lie gain setting discontinuities.
their and
smooth
to the
of sound
in large
surface. Size the Indications. or noise clear cases, indications abnormally Unusually indications, received large large as shown from grain-size grain the size same results in the 4-34. type test specimen same with of back loss
Grain note
"hash" In some
_
in Figure
In the
of material
in a total
FRONT SURFACE
BACK SURFACE
FINE-GRAIN STEEL
FRONT SURFACE
__"HASH"
(FROM PHOTOMICROGRAPHS)
SURFACE
COARSE-GRAIN STEEL
Figure 4-34.
reflection. These conditions are usually brought about by prolonged or improper forging temperatures, or high temperature during hot working and subsequentimproper annealing of the test specimen. 3.
Contact cussed discussion TYPICAL test in the CONTACT TEST in many paragraphs when contact INDICATIONS instances, are similar test are or identical indications. similar to those Little to immersion disindications. and variadifficult loss article of are all
on immersion indications
additional
Interference from tions in efficiency to recognize back major reflection, factors a. after from plastic most difficult pulse "tail" applied b. in Figure may obstruction the block, contact 4-35. to detect, of the to the initial test
the initial pulse at the front surface of the test specimen of coupling, produce irrelevant effects that are sometimes testing. distance in evaluation Indications. test initial material, pulse. pip by the separation the because when pulse. specimen Discontinuity initial of the Figure where With As of the in immersion discontinuity display. dead which path. responses obscures transducers, initial-pulse 4-36 the shows zone is the length are initial the of the pulse testing, from the signal surfaces amplitude, of the and
in contact used
entering
displayed a standoff,
In immersion of these
in contact
testing.
surface
straight-beam near-surface
initial pulses
be effective
by the ringing
Typical
Indications.
indications
_IBACK \/"
encountered
in ultra-
_/,.SU RFACE
.r
\
TEST SPECIMEN
I r
Figure 4-34
4-35.
Dead-Zone
Interference
_ I
IITY
Long
and
Short
Pulse found
Effects
such
as nonmetallic in Figure
forging the
cracks, received
Laminations multiples normal received welds, as shown zones, seam tions shear
by a reduction
4-38.
A illustrates
plate and view B shows a reduction in the distance when the transducer is moved over the lamination. a satisfactory in view but in this commonly case, has weld A of Figure area is shown View such Surface transducer, with the B shows as porosity cracks are Figure is located weld the in the and 4-41 4-39. same
between the back In angle-beam zones reflections of the which detected clearly for weld. produce when
a discontinuity 4-40.
discontinuities
indicausing indi-
in Figure
sometimes shows
an angle-beam
a surface-wave
INITIAL
PULSE
REFLECTION DISCONTINUITY
i
-
1-11
NON-METALLIC INCLU$1ON
17K]
_., #1
CRACK FLAKING
SEAM
Figure
4-37.
Typical
Contact
Test
Discontinuity
Indications 4-35
kj
VIEW A
VIEW B
Figure
4-38.
Effect
of Lamination
on Back-Reflection
Multiples
WELD
NEAR EDGE
Figure
4-39.
Weld
Indications
Using
Angle-Beam
Contact
Techniques
SEAM
POROSITY
SLAG
\ \
Figure
4-36
4-40.
Porosity
and
Slag Indications
in Weld
Seam
in the the
surface initial
of the
test
a relatively
of the
is moved
in the shows
immersion
an indication
a discontinuity
material. Coarse-grain as shown material 4-44, causes when reflections the test or "hash"
across
in Figure
is attempted
INITIAL
PULSE
CRACK
Figure
4-41.
Surface
Crack
Indication
Using
Angle-Beam
Technique
/TRANSMITTING
TRANSDUCER_TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITY //?,', / ,,_-__ ECHOES SURFACES PARALLEL I ENTRANT RETURN TO TRANSDUCER, FROM TO SURFACE
/ ', ,;,, /
I I _\ \ / /
',-Y- /
I I "-.. I \_ \ \/ / II
BEAM
REFLECTED
AWAY NOT
FROM
BY A SURFACE SURFACE.
PARALLEL
Figure
r
4-42.
Two-Transducer
Indications 4-37
kj
DISCONTINUITY
0.02"
BELOW SURFACE
TEST
SURFACE
Figure
4-43.
Indication
of Near-Surface
Discontinuity
Figure at a high lower transducer. transducer surface conversion turning straight ducer. echo frequency. When is not will occurs as reflected soundbeam Surface
4-44.
Coarse or reduce
Grain the
Indications effect of these unwanted by using when pips of the long test the following face the reflections, an angle-beam of the backmode and retrans-
To eliminate and testing curved appear from shear will change the cylindrical to fit the as shown the waves, lessen generated this
the frequency
of the
soundbeam especially
In testing
soundbeam
in Figure by changing
A more also
to a larger testing
waves
during
straight-beam
unwanted
INITIAL
Figure 4-38
4-45.
Irrelevant
Indication
from
Cylindrical
Specimen
S HEA R____,..__
_.,_
Figure irrelevant Figure face testing wave Figure wave indications 4-47. with 4-48.
from edge
Bar test
Specimen specimen caused a small as transducer. unit shown as shown by the When surfacein the dissurin
Movement
of the
cause movement
to move
component
receiving
of unwanted
reflection
INITIAL
by varying
SURFACE WAVE
REFLECTION
Figure
4-47.
Irrelevant
Surface-Wave
Edge
Reflection
INITIAL
PULSE
TRANSMITTER.
....
_ RECEIVER ..___=_-__ .
i
Figure 4-48. Irrelevant Surface-Wave Indication with Two Transducers 4-39
tance between the transducers and watching the indication; when the distance is increased, the apparent discontinuity indication moves away from the initial pulse. Using angle-beam transducers, a certain amount of unwantedreflections are received from the wedge. These indications are shown immediately following the initial pulse in Figure 4-49. Whenthe transducer is lifted off the test specimen, the reflections from within the wedgeare identified becausethey are still present on the display. With continued use, the crystal in the transducer may come loose or fracture. When this happens, the indication is characterized by a prolonged ringing which addsa "tail" to the initial pulse as shown in Figure 4-50. As the prolonged ringing effect
results in a reduced capability of the system to detect discontinuities, the transducer is discarded or repaired.
INITIAL
WEDGE REFLECTI(
I
Figure 4-49.
I
Irrelevant Indication from Plastic Wedge
Figure 4-40
4-50.
Irrelevant
Indication
from
Loose
Transducer
Crystal
TECHNIQUE
is used parallel, As
measuring discontinuities material (or its When transmitted to vibrate waves are material, has
with same
a characteristic is applied cause material test speciof the 4-51. wavea range set in Figure Since fundamental a waves into the
to the
test
specimen, are
standing
the wavelength
up within
patterns related
is increased,
decreases.
is determined
TEST SPECIMEN
REFLECTED
WAVE
TR SDUCER
1 MEGACYCLE
F
/
INCIDENT WAVE
(FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY)
-----,,--
THICKNESS
= 1 WAVELENGTH
------..
__
THICKNESS
= 1-1/2
WAVELENGTHS
[_
,,x..s,
-,-----THICKNESS
_,,x,.7,_1
I
= 2 WAVELENGTHS
--
Figure
4-51.
Standing
Wave
Patterns 4-41
/
i
V
F --m
2T
Where:
____
for
V T
= =
waves
using appear
(CRT) as pips.
the
and is the
fundamental readout
thickness
measurements
CRT display, ments require charts thickness conversion of the by2. 2. In the operator 3: TYPICAL following has longitudinal determined;
or a scale over a stroboscopic of charts or tables to compute frequency A constants the frequency The of each difference on the or K table into given the type K factors between chart is located
Other instruTo use these harmonics corresponding the thickness the per second, is
or tables,
frequency
K factor
material
in the
velocity
of material,
TESTING testing
PROCEDURE the assumption at the test of the is made area. that the to Chapter
necessary
Refer
Equipment, a. Turn
requirements and
on instrument
allow
coaxial cable to the end of the cable. b. Using display. c. Adjust nesses Place For e. a suitable Figure
oscillator
opposite
place
transducer reference
on test test
block blocks.
and
observe
typical
instrument until the thickness marked on the test block. transducer example, on a section a standard and of sheet
indications
match
the known
thick-
d.
or plate
selected
for plate.
this
exercise.
1/4-inch determine
thickness the
Of steel
Observe (the
resonant
frequency
difference the
any
f.
Assuming
fundamental
Zrequency formula
compute the thickness by using the the following values for K and F: 4-42
_'_/
REFERENCE BLOCK
BLOCK
4-52. constant
Test from
megacycles
T (thickness)
0. 461 T =
(fundamental 0.25
3.
TYPICAL
RESONANCE using
TEST an on
RESULTS (CRT) as shown pips. display, Figure show 4-53 above the shows the fundamental a typical CRT sweep
harmonics
resonance
indications
projecting
horizontal
/-
7 RESONANCE INDICATIONS
CRT SCREEN--_..
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
,w/
Figure *.-_
4-53.
Typical
Resonsnce
CRT
Display 4-43
height the
their a direct
position thickness
the base
By placing superimposed
a transparent CRT
The
3rd,
CRTCREEN-. .. I S
ill II'lllllJllllJlllir I
_!_J_L-JJ
3RD HARMONIC 090 ,ll_0 ,Ii0
_L.LJ._L LL [__LI I
120 ,130 .1,LO 150 . 160 .170
I I i il
_J_LL_L.LLU_LI
.II0 .120 j,
HORIZONTAL
Figure 4th harmonics right since for indication it appears detecting are shown. as for
Transparent indication
as 0. 100 or 0. 133 inch, correct thickness three different produce thickness testers CRT sharp, are
in signal
amplitude
caused
by reduced various
material
displays strong
back-surface
TUBE
CATHODE-RAY
CATHODE-RAY
CATHODE-RAY
H
SMOOTH SURFACE VARIABLE SURFACE PITTED OR CORRODED SURFACE
Figure 4-44
4-55.
CRT
Display
of Back-Surface
Variables
produce surfaces
several produce
and of
re-
ultrasonic of the obtained is appearing moved or bond the along set up on the for the test
in the several
of discontinuities. or four as resonance the or voids are similar a very tester represent from is used
are shifting
transducer by the or
specimen, of all or
indications. structures,
honeycomb soundness Usually ical ing is bond size tested test, i ! CRT the then
of the it is
to a laminar high shown a void a bonded gage. size, impedance in Figure of known
discontinuity. mismatch. 4-57. size, within the material made up of the the under By A typadjustpattern test. a given being for each The
a void
space
compared tester
obtained
specimen
are
good. minimum as
is below must
requirements. closely as
reference physical
simulate
bonded
lie [UJ_
DISCONTINUITY AT 1/2 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY AT .3/4 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY AT A SHARP ANGLE DISCONTINUITY AT 1/4 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO THE SURFACE
Figure
4-56.
CRT
Displays
of
Discontinuities 4-45
!
R_
SCREEN RESONANCE
Figure specimens areas. 407 In the density, Constant REFERENCE follo_ing and TABLES reference of high acoustic tables, impedance impedance of various Table being tested and also
4-57. must
Bond have
Tester
clearly
a high are
Table
4-1,
is an indication K values
velocities, testing.
a number
of materials.
materials 4-1.
Percentage
L_J FIRST MEDIUM z _J o,:, ALUMINUM STEEL NICKEL COPPER BRASS LEAD MERCURY GLASS QUARTZ POLYSTYRENE BAKELITE WATER OIL (TRANSFORMER) 21 O z 24 0.2 0 (..) 18 0.3 0.8 0 14 1 2 0,2 O 3 9 12 7 5 0 1 16 19 13 I0 1 0 2 31 34 19 23 9 4 0 0.3 27 29 22 16 8 1 0.8 O 50 77 79 75 73 62 8 40 46 O 42 76 75 71 68 55 6 32 17 1 0 72 88 89 87 86 79 75 65 68 12 18 0 74 89 90 88 87 80 76 67 71 17 23 0.6
4-46
WAVES
MATERIAL
IMPEDANCE ZL=GMX1000/ CM 2 - SEC. .033 1,720 1,750 310 2,330 3,610 3,120 2,960 4,180 12 1,450 1,240 242 6,260 400 2,460 1,010 6,350 4,950 127 320
AIR ALUMINUM 2S0 ALUMINUM 17ST BARIUM TITANATE BERYLLIUM BRASS (NAVAL) BRONZE (P-57o) CAST IRON COPPER CORK GLASS, PLATE GLASS, PYREX GLYCERINE GOLD ICE LEAD, PURE MAGNESIUM, AM 35 MOLYBDENUM NICKEL OIL, TRANSFORMER PLASTIC (ACRYLIC RESIN-PLEXIGLASS) POLYETHYLENE QUARTZ, FUSED SILVER STEEL STAINLESS 302 STAINLESS 410 TIN TITANIUM (TI 150A) TUNGSTEN WATER ZINC
.001 2.71 2.80 .56 1.82 8.1 8.86 7.7 8.9 .24 2.51 2.25 1.261 19.3 1.00 11.4 1.74 10.09 8.3 .92 1.18
.033 .635 .625 .550 1.280 .443 .353 .450 .466 .051 .577 .557 .192 .324 .398 .216 .579 .629 .563 .138 .267 .153 .593 .360 .585 .566 .759 .332 .610 .518 .149 .417
310 .310 .871 .212 223 .240 .226 .343 .344 .120 199 .070 .310 .335 .296 .i12
840 868 1,600 1,720 1,980 1,850 2,010 865 765 2,320 199 798 539 3,650 2,610 I32
1,300 3,800 4,560 4,550 5,670 2,420 2,770 9,980 149 2,960
745
-
4-47
Table
4-3.
Resonance
Testing,
Constant
K Table
MATERIAL ALUMINUM ALUMINUM OXIDE BERYLLIUM BRASS BRONZE (P-5%) CAST IRON COPPER CORK GLASS, PLATE GLASS, PYREX GOLD ICE LEAD MAGNESIUM MOLYBDENUM MONEL NICKEL PETROLEUM PLASTIC(ACRYLIC RESIN, POLYETHYLENE PHENOLIC LAMINATE(PAPER RUBBER QUARTZ SILVER STEEL, CAST STEEL, STAINLESS STEEL TEFLON TIN TITANIUM TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN-SILVER URANIUM WATER (FRESH) ZINC ZIRCONIUM PLEXIGLASS) BASE)
CONSTANT
K(1,000,
O00 IN./SEC.)
0.121 - 0.131 0.188 - 0.193 0.252 0.086 - 0.092 0.0695 0.087 - 0. 110 0.092 - 0.093 0.010 0.114 0.Iii 0.064 0.078 0.047 0.049 0.114 0.116 O. 124 0.106 0.108 0.113 0.115 0.026 (APPROXIMATELY) 0.0525 0.036 0.052 0.0205 0.I14 0.071 0.II0 0.116 0.I12 0.114 0.i15 0.I18 0.0245 - 0.0335 0.065 0.121 0.126 0.102 O.076(APPROXIMATELY) 0.066 0.070 O.028(APPROXIMATELY) 0.082 0.093 0.102
4-48
CHAPTER
5:
CALIBRATING OF
TESTING
UNITS
C
Paragraph 500 501 GENERAL STANDARD 1. 2. 3. 502 1. 2. 3. 4. General Materials Shapes General
TABLE
CONTENTS
Page ......................................... REFERENCE BLOCKS ........................ ....................................... ...................................... ........................................ CALIBRATION Check Check Reference Reference Area/Amplitude Bail Area/Amplitude Axial Beam Distance/Amplitude PROCEDURE ..................... ....................................... ............................. ........................... Check 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-10 5-3 5-5 5-8 5-9 5-10 ........ 5-12 5-12 ................. ................ ..............
TYPICAL
Area/Amplitude Distance/Amplitude Transducer Standard Standard Typical Steel Typical Transducer Transducer
................................ Blocks Block .......................... Design Response Response Response ...................... Curve Curve Curve
!PRECEDING
PAGE
BLANK. 5:
NOT
CHAPTER 500 Periodic Iinearity rant effects may expect the 4: to reference operator rial and dardizing Chapter size sample rigid ment 501 1. For GENERAL calibration of dispIayed within the standards. confidently an accurate calibrated whmh standard, and with matches of ultrasonic indications testing Once adjust
CALIBRATING
units
is frequently proper is calibrated the of the and unit test within made test by calibrating to the
to establish performance. instrument standards, of the sample. (refer shape of the is based of the test on a instrutest the mateStanto and IrreIesystem
to ensure eliminated
equipment
of discontinuities blocks,
sample
is done in a specific
Techniques)
physical
properties sample
of the is given
considerable
to calibration
instrument (Figure
to sample 5-1)
variables.
of equipment
calibration,
ultrasonic
standard
reference
blocks
are
Figure
5-1.
Standard
Reference
Blocks
manufactured hole Alcoa, dards. and balls, tude length, for drilled
shapes These
and Inc.,
with
a standard available
size from
flat-bottomed sources such as stanperformance steel Area/amplisize, shape, block. same and
blocks standard,
readily for
to as off-the-shelf instrument calibrating. same same of each of varying-diameter of the of the For
blocks,
blocks flat-bottomed
holes
Distance/amplitude
shape, information,
alloy
bar stock (refer to ASTM Recommended Practice E127-64). Various other types of blocks are made from plastic, steel, magnesium, carbon, etc. When testing materials, sensitivitycorrections and adjustments for metal distance made on special reference blocks of a material which most When calibrating, the material may be differIn such cases, the equipment the material of the test specimen.
of the reference block used for checking performance ent than the material found in subsequent test samples.
of the equipment
is standardized to the variables of the material under test, as described in Chapter 4, Techniques. 3. Standard shapes. rection both area accuracy SHAPES (Figure 5-2) are usually of blocks may which manufactured are used; one correction. be used. are Reference which on steel standard, mounted in rectangular set for A basic blocks consists pins and set or cylindrical corcombines for of in which are
blocks for
distance/amplitude reference
by using
a fundamental
of varying
Shapes blocks
for are
Standards. in sets same size of the one inch, in each 1/64, flat bottom is made hole and hole set
Area/amplitude
standard
reference with
of rectangular
or cylindrical
blocks
each block as nearly only variable is the block block. inch hole or 5-4 to a depth The bottom cutter. hole increments; The
shape as the others in the set. The drilled in the bottom center of each to the vary 3/64, longitudinal etc., axis of the The driI1 and is in a progression drilling as smooth with of 1/64th inch. a flat-end
to 8/64
in each
by final
as possibIe
f-
HOLE PERPENDICULAR TO TOP SURFACE (A). HOLE BOTTOM (C) PARALLEL WITH TOP SURFACE (A).
--,-----2"
TO 2-1/4 DIAMETER
w-----"
1 1 fc
3/4" '_''E (SEE NOTE)
B(SEE
NOTE)
A = ULTRASONIC ENTRY SURFACE. B = METAL DISTANCE. 3 INCHES FOR AREA/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS, VARYING DIMENSION FOR DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. C = FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE SURFACE. D = BACK SURFACE. PARALLEL WITH TOP SURFACE. E = HOLE DIAMETER. VARYING DIMENSION FOR AREA/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS IN ]./64-INCH INCREMENTS, 5/64-INCH DIAMETER FOR ALL DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. ]./4-INCH FLAT COUflTERBORE FOR PLUGGING HOLE.
Figure
5-2.
Standard
Reference
Design be seen each also hole to area used later, bottom size the area is reis located of the hole standard pins The with pins installed parallel is are of
v,j
parallel the lated bottom. tude which fiat made to the hole
of the block. and or amplitude, is directly diameters, use block, from rod, the
displayed
on the related
oscilIoscope,
height bails,
of the pip
as an area/ampli-
of standard surface
perpendicular calibrated
b,
block,
immersed, each
by centering
of the eight
blocks,
Standards. Rectangular or cylindrical are made in sets with eachblock set, inch the except of each in depth. pip that block As size block are each height usually hoie center: 5/64 bottom related
others and
in the 3/4
is varied.
holes
diameter,
to a constant
oscilloscope from
is directly
502 i. In the
CALIBRATION
PROCEDURE
ealibl_ation
procedure
will
be covered,
assuming"
conditions a.
of several
commercially
available
pulse-echo
ultrasonic b. c. Test
instruments. The test frequency transducer shall be 15 Mc. inch diameter quartz; with an
Frequency.
Transducer. operational
of 3/8
d.
Power
Source.
transformer. e. Immersion large block. f. enough Tank. Any container accurate is satisfactory positioning of the that will hold couplant and the and reference is
to allow
transducer
Clean blocks.
deaerated
water
is used when
as a couplant. the
The
same from
water, differing
at
temperature,
is used
comparing
responses
g.
Bridge and Manipulator. lator and rigid enough ducer. fine The angular manipulator adjustment Blocks. area and distance of ten blocks blocks diameter
The bridge is strong enough to support the maniputo allow smooth, accurate positioning of the transadequately in two vertical supports planes corrections set. may blocks. a 3 inch length Standard. to the from reference and 1/8 be used; metal which When A basic for the that for by using set example, and relations 5/64 inch transducer are normal and provides to each and other. disset both basic compared -, and set
h.
Test
sensitivity are
accomplished
an area/amplitude
a distance/amplitude
Distance/amplitude
diameter
i.
blocks surface
of corrosion
to 1 inch
as a tee pin,
is necessary
each
2.
The from alternate
CHECK is determined reference as follows: reference immersion sIightIy and the block tank. off-center, surface (a block Position the containing transducer distance This inch, a 5/64 over distance a the of 3 inches by obtaining blocks (steel the balls ultrasonic may responses as an
be used
5 area/amplitude hole} of the face accurately, the block the transducer, from the that in the block, crystal within and the
of the
by using
of the
block,
a of the
reflection
of the to the
is perpendicular surface
number
of back
reflection
pips
purpose. the transducer bottom. the instrument on the blocks the b. and gain set. block each for block each distance with and block, each of the the for other the blocks No. in the 7 and No. set. Repeat a water 8 blocks control ray tube until screen. the pip height Do not is 31% of the this step maximum for the laterally until the maximum response is received from
c.
Move the
hole
d.
cathode in the
repeat
e.
reference c. for
record except
indications.
Maintain
of 6 inches. indications as shown curve in the (in this in Figure instrument. example} range ideal the are and a vertical curve instrument the different (CF) height of indication (CH) and factor 5-3. In the from Amplitudes in the are linear of indiincreased line upAmplitudes a
f.
Plot
a curve line below of the above ideal from point cent The
example straight plotted range cation to the ward The per play. height indication the same indication
shown,
where
the
of responses
deviates
of linear point
and no correction curve. height is done the the factor range, the curve the
in the non-linear
the
actual
of indication
is intercepted. (CI-I) in can actual in actual amplitude is plotted When the is computed dis-
corrected
correction
correction
(,,,
z o
F--
100
IDEAL LINEARITY_
/ _lw,./
< CH = CORRECTED HEIGHT ----- 80 -ADD CORRECTION FACTOR z__ TO ACTUAL HEIGHT TO uJ OBTAIN CORRECTED HEIGHT -J m AH + CF = CH
8/64"
DIA-CHJ
f
...eA-.--AH
t
CF
o< ,v
60
6/64"_ 40 '< _;
t._
"_LIMIT
OF LINEAR RESPONSE
20
z
LU n,-
4/64 3/
J"
_ POINT OF STANDARDIZATION
NOTE: IN THIS EXAMPLE, INDICATIONS WITHIN +5% OF IDEAL ARE CONSIDERED LINEAR. I I I I 30 40 50 60 RELATIVE AREA UNITS
,,, o_
20
70
(RATIO:
1/64TH = 1, 2/64TH =4, 3/64TH = 9, 4/64TH = 16, 5/64TH = 25, 6/64TH = 36, 7/64TH =49, AND 8/64TH =64. DYNAMIC RANGE: 64 TO 1, INTERMEDIATE PIP HEIGHTS IN PROPORTION)
5-3.
Typical
correction
AH
gi
+ range
CF
CH instrument may also be determined by recording the from method the the maximum over for plotted maxion a
The
linear
of the
ultrasonic 1/8 to 1.0 is used, instrument obtainable 1/2 tained mum curve 3. The inch
responses from inch in diameter following gain on the previous control steel oscilloscope ball.
each of fifteen steel balls, in 1/16 inch increments. steps a. through until each the wtth the f., except transducer the water indications the pip height bail,
ranging in size The immersion that in step d. is 50% of the positioned distance are
diameter
is main-
constant
at 3 + 1/32
transducer
is positioned
recorded
DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE distance/amplitude
the ultrasonic responses ing metal distance with tions are recorded
of the reference blocks in a set of blocks diameter hole in each block. The resultant following procedure:
on a curve,
in the
1:: LLI
80_ 70 -AH = ACTUAL HEIGHT CF CORRECTION FACTOR CH = CORRECTED HEIGHT ADD CORRECTION FACTOR TO ACTUAL HEIGHT TO OBTAIN CORRECTED HEIGHT , AH + CF = CH
I O9 Z O w }-< m Z h3 .-J
IDEAL LINEARITYn_
CH I_ _) CF ."'-
/9 / /
_CSy P.....
6O
5O
J /
S
,f/7
LINEAR
RESPONSE
OF STANDARDIZATION
C* < t_ ,v
4O
3O
#
/.
f.-
NOTE: 2O IN THIS EXAMPLE, INDICATIONS Wl [HIN +5% OF IDEAL ARE CONSIDERED LINEAR,
I0
-_
i/8
3116
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
BALL DIAMETER,
5-4.
Bail
Response inch
bottom,
of 3 inches a gage
between
accurately, block
a + or - tolerance
by using
surface
of the
block,
reflection surface
block.
is perpendicular
A maximum
c.
Move the
until
the
from is
hole
Repeat
each block and record the indications. for each block, except when the basic
requires diameter
e,
a water distance of 6 inches for one block containing hole with a metal distance of 3. 000 inches. of the the 2.0 to the the recorded near inch field indications (fresnel) indication. attenuate as shown zone in Figure from beyond
an 8/64
inch
Plot
a curve
shown,
extends
indications
in height.
CHECK during as modified pattern ultrasonic curve or plot are than can test from also equipment by the a 1/2 test inch calibration, instrument, diameter from that the the steel same curve the are characteristics determined ball steel and immersed ball beam used ultrasonic the 6: transCalithe analysis at a plot with of by
To improve of the recording in water. fixed any water test recorded transducer testing ducer brating may
or distorted
procedure
if the
characteristics be calibrated
be accomplished special
procedure. following
I 15 MC i
procedure,
checking
t FREQUENCY:
90
Z O
m r_ Z W .J rn
80 70--
/
....
60 W r_
50
40
h O W "i b-Z
30
20-
/_
rw W
IO
POINTOF
STANDARDIZATION
/
-
---..,
/
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5 METAL
3.0
3.5 DISTANCE,
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
(INSTRUMENT
CORRECTED
Figure 5-10
5-5.
Typical
Distance/Amplitude
Response
Curve
transducer is the same as that prescribed in the previous paragraphs for calibrating the instrument with reference blocks. The maniuplator is set to allow a range in water distance of 0 to at least 6 inches from the face of the transducer to the ball surface.
a
the
instrument on the
gain
until the
height transducer
maximum at a top
obtainable
oscilloscope Exercise
with
of the center
to the
in producing
a true
indication Record
by locating point
center
b.
After
standardizing
Again, exercise care in using the manipulator beam center on the center of the bail. Record Do not readjust the instrument gain control the procedure. c. Vary the water inches. Record tance, center d. As
in this
or succeeding
distance in 1/8 inch increments through a range of 1/4 to 6 the maximum indication for each increment of water distime the transducer on the bail. plot and the recorded the is moved back that the beam
5-6,
indications axial test is similar in the The peaks instrument to the curve is 1/16
non-Iinearity) sponse The Figure tances water e. of the for 5-6. of 1.25, distance curve
distance/amplitude
at water deviation
shown.
allowable
occurence
of these
Determine the transducer beam pattern by relocating the manipulator obtain a 3 1/32 inch water distance from the 1/2 inch diameter steel to the travel, ducer The scan should profile 30 per face the passes symmetry by rotating not vary has of the of the height over the more side transducer. of the the ball. beam transducer than lobes 10 per with of the is shown While Three scanning from the distinct laterally, bail lobes The the produce no less lobe. The 5-7. 3/8 inch while are displacing of the side total the indication is observed or maximums four entire scans; magnitude
observed.
of the
is checked cent
45 degrees. transducer
of an acceptable
8O
7O
60
POINT OF
z O I h<
J 50
STANDARDIZATION
z i LLJ .J , t-_ . hi P/
40
30
2O
10
illllll
0 I 2 3 WATER DISTANCE, INCHES 4
A -
O I
.......
Figure
5-6.
Transducer
Axial
Distance/Amplitude
Characteristics
110
101
C/L (CRITICAL
POINT)
BO
70 60 50
\
IMERSlON TRANSDUCER - 3/8-INCH DIAMETER QUARTZ, WITH OPERATIONAL FREQUENCY OF 15 MC.
w_ e_- z
40
ZI.W<
..30
AJ
'22
1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4
\
5/16 3/8
Figure 5-12
5-7,
Transducer
Beam
Pattern V
CHAPTER
6:
CALIBRATING OF
TRANSDUCERS
TABLE
CONTENTS
Paragraph 600 601 602 603 GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 604 General Test Function Recording Manipulative TRANSDUCER ......................................... EQUIPMENT CALIBRATING CALIBRATING ....................................... Setup ...................................... ....................................... Method ................................. ............................. Equipment QUALIFICATIONS TECHNIQUE EQUIPMENT ................... ..................... ..................
Page 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-6 6-6 PROFILES .................... ..................... Measurements ....................... ........... .............. 6-6 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-9 6-9 6-10 6-10 6-10 6-11 6-11 6-11 6-12 6-4 6-5 6-8 6-9 6-9 ........... 6-10
Reflector Targets ................................. Pulser ........................................ Wideband Receiver ................................ System .................................. OF TRANSDUCER BEAM ....................................... Transducer Transducer Measurements Measurements
6O5
4. Cylindrically-Focused Transducer ANALYSIS OF TRANSDUCER DATA 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. General Waveform Frequency Damping Sensitivity Focal Beam Beam Length Amplitude Width and ....................................... ...................................... ...................................... Factor .................................. .................................... Profiles Symmetry .....................................
Diagram Method
...........................
Cylindrically-Focused
6:
CALIBRATING
and bond
to the may
individual
Acoustic
or backing,
GENERAL
QUALIFICATIONS and receiving that will equipment transducer are manner describe damping not distort is required characteristics, the which the and natural without will amplified special recording beam for accurately the mode crystal of a perma-
distortion,
received record.
provide
photographic
or caltbrating
as frequency,
sensitivity,
factor,
beam
CALIBRATING calibrating bearing, is moved beam, held to the over related the
TECHNIQUE consists reflector, plot return The using camera. are used or articles. EQUIPMENT of the signal of using a smalI is scanned in profile. RF waveform sensitivity manipulative recording uniform test reflector by the in the ultrasonic is produced At the highest is analyzed With symmetry may transducers equipment, resuIts immerbeam. on the amplifor the potenis to data in-
response
recorded
damping, a dynamic
be expected
recorded inspecting
in specifying
the
transducer transducer
by the
distance/amplitude An open-shutter
oscilloscope on Polaroid
to record
profile
TEST transducer or
SETUP is placed so the is by in a couplant immersed placed the use data in the tank (similar and to a small reflector accurate are aquarium) viewed motion made through of the the scanning on the the of cou-
glass
A reflector ensured convert controls of transducer produced FUNCTION 6-1 shows delay with by
with
of milling into
motion of the
electrical The
horizontal dis-
oscilloscope. in inches.
horizontal X or
oscilloscope Y directions
display of crystal
shows
traverse simply
Either
movement
switching
potentiometers.
of the wideband
which
a timer,
amplifies both
timer triggers
oscilloscope.
I
DATA SWEEP DELAY [ PLATES HORIZONTAL
I
<o
"TRANSDUCER
:0 _
TIMER
SCOPE
I 1PULSER I
VERTICAL PLATES
RECEIVER WIDEBAND
Figure
6-1.
Equipment
Functional
Diagram
The
data
are
used
to delay describing
the
the is
record
soundsuch non-
dimensional Polaroid,
is a scope-mounted photographing.
shutter
port
MANIPULATIVE elevating length are has division the plot, fitted moved and target the micrometer of data
EQUIPMENT and transversing screw slides, mechanisms Milling calibrated and chain the table drives screen; The to the of the other beam movements, are crossfeeds that the required are for used, the precise which Two sweep distance one one without plot 90 from soundbeam consist of the by the the on the is made the in inches of slide
measurements. with across bezel on the then, Two and one sprocket the
potentiometers. on the
is obtained. mounting
turning
or disturbing
transducer.
UTTER
SCOPE
Figure
6-2.
Camera
Recording
Method 6-5
6.
Unless signal used, selected face This ment post, of ball varies with ducer crystal large produce
REFLECTOR reflector and will particularly of the will of the ball prevent beam. adequate to the reflectors the the beam diameter imperfections. sotmdbeams reflector the with the
TARGETS targets are invalid as small to less carefully chosen, focused as possible. than distortion analyzing amplitude while eliminate to the crystal about example, or For for one-quarter and larger undue diameter is used, testing. the flat equal Best difficulty surface. in size a flat, flat-disc those transducers, produced experiment, diameter In one a bad In most transducers. The size wavelength influence flat provided results target cases, of the can The seriously diameter effective target case, transducer on the a ball distort steel balls ball surmeasuretarget may peruse frequency. of the reflecting the are
information.
precision
calibrating
is maintained
profile
recording.
a flat-topped is held from flat the reflectors reflectors compared the fairly small AEC areas, In Hanford balltransthe
as small
in diameter surface in that transducer geometry size to detect. is adequate much size soundbeam
as possible, they
normal of each
and lens.
measured,
is expected
Spherically-focused
proportion, Laboratories, point 7. This quency with demands resonant ducers, second. 8. ) nanoseconds. pen. PULSER test
a 29-mii
with the
short
pulse the
the
natural
freThis
transducer duration
damping
characteristics,
a voltage
as possible, analysis
(5 to 25 Mc)
recommended (A microsecond
is 0. 025 microseconds
is one-millionth
a nanosecond
is one-billionth
WIDEBAND the
RECEIVER received signal from becoming receiver and distorted, is one a gain a receiver with of about with 40 db. a wideband of 1.5 to
is used. time
A recommended
a bandwidth
of I0 nanoseconds,
DISPLAY
system
sufficient plug-in.
bandwidth Bandwidth
and
rise
time
to present
distortion. L vertical
A recommended amplifier
oscilloscope
is the
Tektronix
is dc to 30 Mc with
6-6
capability expansion
J
of 0.010 features
This
scope for
combination
offers
delay beam
base
recording
transducer
604 i.
RE_ORDING GENERAL data records various FLAT-DISC 6-4 cut while and the shows in water polished
OF TRANSDUCER
BEAM
PROFILES
Transducer graphic scribe 2. Figure positioned been lel These signal provide 3.
sheets methods
are used
prepared, to obtain
as shown transducer
6-3, profiles.
for
mounting
of photode-
and recording
of transducer
analysis.
following
paragraphs
! !
MEASUREMENTS plot flat over of responses made end the from of the reflector with transducer transducer, the drill picked butt and the the are up by a fiat-disc end of a metal crystal four transducer, recorded face parallel drill are paths plus transducer which held has paral-
transducer taken
along
shown. a return to
amplitude
profiles, a stationary
taken
a moving
on a photograph
of individual
characteristics.
TRANSDUCER
the reflector stationary, a waveform is obtained and two beam amplitude profile plots are taken with the transducer traversed in the X-axis and the Y-axis. If the depth of field for a focused transducer is required, the beam inside and outside the focal point. 4. CYLINDRICALLY-FOCUSED soundbeam, cylindrically-focused measuring the beam length width of the focused TRANSDUCER in width transducer by traversing beam as shown and MEASUREMENTS unfocused has the immersed 6-6. along the length, over ball is proball the diameter profile may be taken at points
which
a concave
lens. Correct
A steel
transducer
across
in Figure
depends on the frequency, crystal size, and lens A rule of thumb is to select as small a reflector adequate Since the
|
levels
for
profiling. narrow, length, depends crystal are the may size, produced the problem be avoided same and lens of maintaining by substituting factors radii. along over the beam reflector. length over that ball determine alignment of wire ball while for diameter
beam ball,
a piece
wire
on the
across
the ball
6-7
TRANSDUCER
ACOUSTICAL
ANALYSIS
FREQUENCY
DAMPING
FACTOR,
BEAM
WIDTH/DIAMETER,
FOCAL
LENGTH,
BEAM
SYMMETRY
SERIAL
NO-,,., FOCUSED
DATE
TYPE
HOUSING
FREQUENCY
15 MC
CRYSTAL LENS
SIZE.
CRYSTAL
LITHIUM
SULFATE
REFLECTORS
INSPECTOR
A.;
B.
0.039
DRIVER
PULSE:
0.039
DIA.
STEEL
BALL
DURATION,
o. 065
,MICROSECONDS VOLTS
C.
0.039
DIA.
STEEL
BALL
AMPLITUDE
15o
CONNECTING
PULSER
TO CRYSTAL
5'
RECEIVER
TO SCOPE
5'
RG 62
TIME
,_
MEASURED TRACE
FREQUENCY A
17'__._._SMCS
-'
FOCAL 20
LENGTH
0.558
INCHES
B. 2 5
(Y DIRECTION) MICROSEC/cM VOLTS/CM BEAM WIDTH TRACE B OR DIA.. 3DB AMP. 0.007 POINTS INCH/DIV
/.\..... /_\ -)
3.0
004
INCHES
C. 2 5
004
INCH/'DIV
AF:
.......
_//\
'/<X---_ i --_
TRACE TRACE
18o.-36o.
B C
COURTESY AUTOMATION INDUSTRIES, INC. Figure 6-3. Typical Transducer Data Sheet
REFLECT(
PATH
FLAT-DISC CRYSTAL
Figure
6-4.
Fiat-Disc
Transducer
Measurements
BALL REFLECTOR
X-BEAM
PROFILE
Figure
6-5.
Focused
Transducer
Measurements 6-9
REFLECTOR I
Figure
6-6.
Cylindrically-Focused
Transducer
Measurements
point the
for
the
measurement
stationary moved
beam the
to points
(by moving
actually)
point. DATA
OF TRANSDUCER
each transducer
of the
main
headings the
on the
transducer
data profile
discussed.
tested,
waveform
and beam
as follows.
WAVEFORM highest amplitude portion of the beam, as determined by the profile shots, the
with the transducer stationary. scale and time on the horizontal damping factor, and sensitivity.
a determination
in this test, the actual the desigu frequency. wave in the water this material, is the
medium.
As this
of the To record
acoustical
6-10
the base) 4.
the illustrates
first this
target
Trace period
A in (time-
Figure
be calculated
of time
is measured cycles that state when of the very within A in Figure after
which greater
RF pulse indicates
smaller
damping
the better
two signals SENSITIVITY refers reflected sensitivity, is small, defects a flat, the
together
in a given
ability with
of the the
a relatively to the
ultrasonic
reflectors
compared transducer
straight-beam
circular
reflector
of one-eighth
is adequate. are much small. The to 0.050 tiny length. length inch balls
sizes of focused transducers, smaller than the beam sizes steel also units culties a small bali. duration known balls used are are The from have for focused diameter vertical in volts pulse down held of the and the been measuring tips used diameter,
small discontinuities, The reflector is also in size focused from units. the path With 0.030 These beam beam
in are
of cylindrically-focused and ball along unfocused while the received, along traversing lengthwise as factor sensitivity. is recorded
transducers. in the
dimension be laid
experienced
may
signal
A of Figure
is calibrated
centimeter measure
constant,
peak-to-peak
respect
to the
voltage.
LENGTH information a maximum manually is not photographed return by the signal time base but is recorded on focused measurement on the as the water transducers. oscilloscope path Focal screen
at which is recorded
is obtained
6-11
betweenthe excitation pulse and the water path position at the point of maximum amplitude response. The transducer is held over the center of the ball target and moved toward or away from the ball until the maximum reflected signal is received. 7.
The cycle of the camera duced. tude The curves bonding 8. The BEAM beam with AMPLITUDE profiles scale the PROFILES on the calibrated in mils, target the drives photographs or centimeters, a data recording records and each respect the curve, so on. to one crystal screen. for major show amplitude of transducer of transducer potentiometer With each This cycle another the envelopes return travel. which shutter the respect symmetry lens individual system with The in turn of the cycle next of each signal The half the the
kM
in millivolts
and
motion
RF signal
oscilloscope cycle
a distance/amplitude lower
envelope,
highest
ampli-
of recording to each
produces other.
curves curves
from with
individual
is indicative
send-receive by variations
modes
is affected
in damping,
transducer WIDTH
components.
AND SYMMETRY directly from the width 3-db down of the points profile beam profile on each envelope side of the be caused and small profiles. displayed profile propagated normal by backing imperfections on the peak.
width
is read
horizontal
axis,
or at the critical
of the
as variations analysis
in the of these
variations,
in beam
6-12
CHAPTER
7:
COMPARISON TABLE
AND OF
SELECTION CONTENTS
OF
NDT
PROCESSES
Paragraph 700 701 7O2 7O3 7O4 GENERAL METHOD NDT ..................................... IDENTIFICATION ......................... SELECTION CATEGORIES CHARACTERISTICS ..................................... APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS .......... ..................... ........................ AND METALLURGICAL
DISCONTINUITY
7- 6 7-6 7-8 7-10 .......................... 7-10 7-14 _ ................... 7-16 7-18 7-20 7-22 7-24 ...................... 7-26 7-28 ....................... 7-30 7-32 7-34 .......................... 7-36 7-38 7-40 7-42 7-44 7-46 7-48 7-50 7-52 7-54 7-56 7-58 ....................... 7-60
705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732
METHODS
CRACKS CRACKS
GRINDING CONVOLUTION
............................. .........................
CRACKS
...............................
EMBRITTLEMENT .................................... .................................... PENETRATION ................................... SEAMS SEAMS ............................... ............................... ............................... ..................................
UNFUSED STRESS
HYDRAULIC MANDREL
................................. ...............................
.................................... CORROSION
INTERGRANULAR
7-1
V
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
(CONT)
Page Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-32 Liquid Penetrant Test .......................... 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-6 7-6 7-9 7-11 7-13 7-15 7-17 ............. 7-19 7-21 7-23 7-25 7-27 7-29 7-31 7-33 7-35 7-37 7-39 ......... ........ 7-41 7-43 7-45 7-47 7-49 7-51 7-53 7-55 7-57 7-59 ................ 7-61 ................
Particle Test .......................... Test ............................... Test ............................. ............................. ........................... ......................... ........................ ...................... ................... Discontinuity .................... ..................
Current
Radiographic Test Burst Discontinuities Cold Fillet Grinding Convolution Heat-Affected Heat Surface Thread Tubing Hydrogen Hydrogen Weldment Wrought Treat Shrink Crack Crack Flake Shuts Crack
Discontinuity. Discontinuity
Lack of Penetration Discontinuity ................... Lamination Discontinuity ......................... Laps Laps Gas Stress Hydraulic Mandrel Hot Tear Semiconductor Intergranular and and Seams Seams Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Dis continuity Corrosion in Rolled in Wrought ..................... ........................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ....................... ...................... .......................... Discontinuity Threads Material
Discontinuity
7-2
CHAPTER
7: COMPARISON
AND
SELECTION
OF
NDT
PROCESSES
700 The
GENERAL purpose of this chapter is to summarize the NDT methods the which characteristics may of various to detect types each of type
and to list
be employed
between to the
the
various
methods discontinuity
capabilities be shown.
and Such
limitations variables or of
detection
of a specific or plating),
as type
of discontinuity machining,
(inherent,
processing) all will help determine one test method over another. 701 METHOD IDENTIFICATION
sequence
ultimate
Figures 7-1 through 7-5 illustratefive NDT methods. Each illustrationshows the three elements involved in all five tests, the differentmethods in each test category, and tasks that may 702 The part space only ent 703 Each as the 1. NDT be accomplished with a specific method.
SELECTION be reviewed are selection in paragraphs with the of discontinuities which would standards, 706 through various for inclusion 732 are tn this were only a
that
associated
products changed
of the under
aerodiffer-
section, chosen.
discontinuities
not be radically
configuration, CATEGORIES
and environment
are
divided
into with
three categories
general
inherent, specific
processing, material
Each and
of these the
to whether
is associated
ferrous
manufacturing
INHERENT
DISCONTINUITIES are There Inherent related those are discontinuities two types. wrought to the discontinuities and original cover those discontinuities of the metal that are related to the solidification
Inherent of the
melting
solidification
_-
7-3
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
TASK
PERSONNEL
TECHNIQUES_-'-
I EQUIPMENT _--
SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS
Figure
7-1.
Liquid
Penetrant
Test
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
TASK
LOCATE DISCONTINUITY
TEC.NIQUESI I
I EQUIPMENT
Figure
7-2.
Magnetic
Particle
Test
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
PERSONNEL_-
TESTING
DETERMINE BOND
EQUIPMENT ]-_
SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS
I
V
Figure 7-4
7-3.
Ultrasonic
Test
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
TASK
---I
CONDUCTIVITY MEASURE
TECHNIQUES
MANUAL OR AUTOMATIC PHASE ANALYSIS TESTING EQUIPMENTI----DIMENSIONAL DETECT CHANGES AUTOMATIC MODULATION ANALYSIS TESTING APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED I I
Figure
7-4.
Eddy
Current
Test
C
ELEMENT PROCEDURE TASK OBSERVE FUNCTION __ TESTING FILMLESS PERSONNEL m
__
APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED
Figure
7-5.
Radiographic
Test
7-5
b.
cast
are would
those
which article.
are It
to the melting,
temperature, 2. PROCESSING
handling,
and stacking.
DISCONTINUITIES are those such discontinuities forming, that are related to the various rolling, welding,
as machining,
extruding,
SERVICE
DISCONTINUITIES cover such those discontinuities corrosion, that are fatigue, related to the various
discontinuities conditions
as stress
DISCONTINUITY
Origin and location of discontinuity (surface, near surface, or internal). Orientation Shape Photo (flat, (parallel irregularly and/or or normal shaped, typical to the grain). or spiral). overall view of the discontinuity). and at what stage
(micrograph
e.
Metallurgical of manufacture).
analysis
is produced
NDT
METHODS
APPLICATION
AND
LIMITATIONS
GENERAL technological level of test of the now selectively Ioading reliability would accomplishments reliability zone end product product, been and the specific and takes of the but article. it does in the field reproducibility article. into Such reduce of nondestructive to a point This consideration an evaluation needless where the zoning testing the design upon have the reduces brought structural as the that
engineer as well
is based
application
environment in no way
rejection
of material
otherwise
acceptable.
7-6
within method
the
the
vary
of material structural
not require
can be
applications
where testing
the
and not
assume
methods
produce 2.
of discontinuity.
METHOD the may evaluation supplement the such same as: of a specific each task. other The discontinuity and that several of one selection it should NDT method be
NDT NDT
methods upon
be capable is based
of performing variabies
Type
and
origin
of discontinuity processes
manufacturing of article
of acceptability available
desired
Equipment Cost
To satisfactorily task The order portion and 3. The the also rial new must NDT be made methods of the
above
variables, testing.
a planned
analysts
of the
NDT
in that field
reviewing
it should
preference.
LIMITATIONS limitations the test, For NDT applicable material, but these in many reasons, to other test capability many to the and the cases various service the NDT methods reliability are listed slightly all of this the will vary of the for one different limitations chapter with test the ai'ticle applicable affect is may of matelocation, that may be if you
standard, affected. or
Limitations
structural
In addition,
of environment,
a specific of the
is fulfilled of a valid
influence
selection
NDT test.
7-7
_.L.-q
BURST CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or internal. tight. forging, Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material
CHARACTERISTICS Straight Usually rolling, or irregular parallel with or extruding. cavities the grain. (See varying Found Figure in size 7-6.) with large material inter-
or very required
in wrought
ANALYSIS are surface or internal temperature, rolling, or ruptures extruding which operation. is distinguishable are attributed to move-
at an incorrect forging,
or excessive
working
or metal
not have a spongy appearance even if it should occur at the often large and very seldom
c.
D
healed
subsequent
working.
NDT a.
METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally Bursts producing (3) Ultrasonic could (4) Nicks, on the
AND LIMITATIONS METHOD the detection in the of internal material on the bursts. and scope. varying degrees of burst which they resemble a crack,
L_
breaks sharp
reflection
methods. tears, foreign test material, results. Testing diameter. is gas bubbles
produce
ultrasonic
b.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used. restricted to wire, rod, and other articles under 0. 250 inch MAGNETIC (1) Usually internal Results PARTICLE TESTING ferrous METHOD material that has surface
C_
or exposed
(2)
d_
to surface TESTING
and
near
surface
PENETRANT penetrant
is to be applied
to an article
So
used.
Such
variables discontinuity
material,
of radiography.
FORGING EXTERNAL
BURST
BURST
BURST
Figure
7-6.
Burst
Discontinuities 7-9
707
1. 2. 3.
C OLD
Surface and subsurface. Generally a forging lap. (See Figure 7-7.) 4. Cold METALLURGIC shuts are produced AL ANALYSIS during
may
or any sprues
surfaces
They
in a mold AND
NDT a.
APPLICATION
PENETRANT
TESTING
(2)
appear
regular, cross
indication, it occurs. as
reasonably (3) Liquid InconeI (4) Certain removal (5) Geometric buildup continuity.
be
penetrant "X,"
for the
testing not
of nickel 0.5
(such
castings of the
may
be blind
from
which
excessive
orifices, masking
thereby
METHOD of ferrous materials. steel are is such These wherein does not. other that do one indiin
of 431 corrosion-resistant testing structure Indications within the and or other magnetic harmful retentivity discontinuities.
particle a duplex
obtained
which
not result
material, the
V
7-I0
e.
TESTING detectable
(2)
line
or band
of variable
length
and width,
and
(3)
have
inaccessible
areas
which
can
only be
d.
METHOD.
Not
Cast
structure to ultrasonic
and
configuration
do not
as a general
themselves
e.
EDDY figuration
CURRENT and
TESTING
METHOD. variables
Not
Article of this
conmethod.
inherent
material
restrict
SURFACE
COLD
SHUT
INTERNAL
COLD
SHUT
SURFACE
COLD
SHUT
MICROGRAPH
Figure
7-7.
Cold
Shuts
Discontinuity 7-11
FILLET
CRACKS
(BOLTS)
kJ
CHARACTERISTICS of the fillet with the shank of the bolt and progressing
ANALYSIS a marked stress loading point change risers takes where starts AND METHOD for service associated and discontinuities equipment enable of this on the type. spot in diameter are place, the created. whereby These risers surface stress at the occurs, During the tensile are and such the tensile built as between application Ioad loads in. fluctuates can cause Fatigue inward. the of
Junction due
in service
of the
mechanism.
propagates
LIMITATIONS
extensively
A wide selection of transducers evaluation for fillet crack. Being sharp a definite reflection. ) equipment to give has extreme break
(3)
the
scope
pattern
(Actual
can be monitored
and
established
standards
be used
reproducible METHOD
results.
PENETRANT used
TESTING during
Normally
in-service ferrous
for both
to the nonferrous. as a sharp damage strippers, may clear result indication. from coating exposure removers, of high strength steels solutions,
(3) (4)
Will
appear
alkaline
deoxidizer
(5)
under cause
fasteners, corrosion
under penetrant's
splices,
and
affinity
V
7-12
c.
PARTICLE used
TESTING
METHOD
on ferrous sharp
appear fillet
produce
non-relevant
magnetic
17.7 pH is only slightly magnetic becomes strongly magnetic after netic particle tested. TESTING NDT METHOD. methods are
d.
CURRENT cracks.
used
of of
Other
type
of discontinuity. TESTING Surface METHOD. in relation Not normally of this to the type thickness used for detection to of material. of
e.
discontinuities of crack
would
be difficult
due to size
FILLET
FATIGUE
FAILURE
SHOWING
TANGENCY
iN
%.J
Figure
7-8.
Fillet
Crack
Discontinuity 7-13
CRACKS
k.J
Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous
CHARACTERISTICS and They ceramic sharp are at the Grinding found that root. Similar are heat to heat generally treated treat cracks chrome operations. and usually, angles to the plated, (See
in groups. materials
cracks are
at right
of grinding.
in highly
articles,
subjected
to grinding
ANALYSIS surfaces overheating of or poor cut. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD and nonferrous materials for the detecfrequently of the coolant, introduces surface being cracks. ground. These The ground thermal overheating wheel, cracks is too
a dull or improperly
6.
APPLICATION
PENETRANT used
Normally tion
(2)
Liquid shattered
will lines.
appear
as irregular,
checked,
or
(3)
Cracks longest
difficult time.
discontinuity
to indicate
and require
the
(4)
been and
degreased of the
may
still
have
entrapped evaporation
in
discontinuity
should
sufficient
application
b.
MAGNETIC (1) (2) Restricted Grinding although in which (3) Magnetic and
at right
angles network
in extreme
a complete
be parallel
to the size
magnetic
as the
of grinding
crack
decreases
as its
increases.
7-14
c.
EDDY grinding
TESTING
METHOD. equipment
used
of
the capability
developed d.
of and
or NDT
economical,
type
than ultrasonics. Not recommended and small. cracks. of grinding for detection Other NDT of
e.
TYPICAL
r [ t ........
T.
Figure
7-9.
Grinding
Crack
Discontinuity
7-15
710
CONVOLUTION
CRACKS
I. 2. 3. Surface.
Processing Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS from micro and fractures extend to open fissures. in direction Situated on the (See
in size
convolutions
longitudinally
of rolling.
METALLURGICAL rough 'orange which The service pits and peel' stretches roughened
ANALYSIS effect the of convolution material (vibration cracks contains and cracks small is the pits result attack which may form of either such stress stresses photograph. a forming risers. that act
or from
as pickling
surface
introduce
as shown AND
accompanying
NDT a.
METHODS
APPLICATION TESTING
LIMITATIONS
RADIOGRAPHIC
METHOD
(1) Used extensively for this type of failure. (2) Configuration of article and location of discontinuitylimits detection almost exclusively to radiography. (3) Orientation of convolutions to X-ray source is very criticalsince to X-ray may not register
on the film due to the lack of difference in density. (4) Liquid replace (5) The type penetrant radiographic of marking the area and magnetic particle testing testing. grease may pencil affect the on titanium) structure used of the may supplement but not
to identify article. b. ULTRASONIC convolution and internal sonics. EDDY tion CURRENT
of discontinuities
METHOD.
Not normally
used
for
the
detection
of
Co
TESTING As itself
used testing,
for the
the
detection
of convolution does
cracks.
configura-
not lend
to this
V
7-16
d.
TESTING cracks.
METHOD. Although
superimposed of entrapment.
e.
MAGNETIC
TESTING
METHOD.
Not applicable.
Material
is nonferrous.
TYPICAL
CONVOLUTION
DUCTING
CROSS-SECTION
OF CRACKED
CONVOLUTION
HIGHER ORANGE
MAGNIFICATION PEEL
OF CRACK
SHOWING
MICROGRAPH CRACKING
OF CONVOLUTION ON SIDES
WITH
PARTIAL
Figure
7-10.
Convolution
Cracks
Discontinuity
7-17
CRACKING
%J
(Weldments) Nonferrous
CHARACTERISTICS deep and very (See ANALYSIS zones contain prior of weldments more than to welding. AND TESTING LIMITATIONS METHOD increases 0.30% carbon in severity are prone with to this increasing type of tight. Figure Usually 7-11.) parallel with the weld in the heat-
of the weldment.
that
preheating
APPLICATION PARTICLE
(I) Normally
(2) Prod burns are very detrimental, especially on highly heat treated articles. May contribute to structural failure of article. (3) Demagnetization of highly heat treated articles can be very difficult
(1) Normally
(2) Material that has had its surface obliterated, blurred, or blended due to manufacturing processes should not be penetrant tested until the smeared surface has been removed. (3) Liquid penetrant testing after the application of certain types of chemical film coatings may of the discontinuities. c. RADIOGRAPHIC origin make d. ULTRASONIC TESTING other NDT TESTING METHOD. more Not normally used for the detection suitable. be invalid due to the covering or filling
specialized applications have been developed. are required to develop valid tests. (i. , sharp versus rounded e. factors in deflecting the
(3) The configuration of the surface roughness root radii and the slope condition) are major sound beam. 7-18
eo
CURRENT nonferrous
used has
for
the
detection of
of heat-affected as magnetic
capability
it is not
as universally
penetrant.
MICROGRAPH OF WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE SHOWING CRACK NOTE COLD LAP WHICH MASKS THE ENTRANCE TO THE CRACK
;.,j
Figure
7-11.
Heat-Affected
Zone
Cracking
Discontinuity
7-19
712
1. 2. 3. Surface.
HEAT
TREAT
CHARACTERISTICS and forked. Seldom in areas follow with rapid a definite change pattern of material which have and can be in any thickness, been exposed
deep
on the part.
Originate
machining marks, fillets, surface of the material. METALLURGICAL the heating These and
discontinuities 7-12. )
ANALYSIS cooling may stress process movement exceed risers localized of the occur the tensile stresses article, (keyways strength may be set up by unequal causing it
or cooling,
restricted stresses
or unequal or grooves}
cross-sectionaI additional
of the material
APPLICATION PARTICLE
AND
TESTING heat
ferrous particles
materials, testing.
The magnetic particles curved indications. Likely points of origin fillets, structure 17.7, and
indications
wilI
normally
be straight,
forked,
or
(3)
are
areas with
that
would
develop
stress
risers,
such
or areas
rapid
in material treatable
thickness. stainless
irrelevant
indications.
PENETRANT
TESTING materials
(2)
of origin
would
be the
same
as those
listed
above
for
particle
(3)
Materials be tested
C.
CURRENT
Normally Magnetic
not used. particles and liquid penetrant are more direct and economical.
7-20
d.
used
of heat of a
a definite
e.
discontinuities surface
detected
i
A FILLET RELIEF AND MATERIAL THICKNESS RADIUS CRACKING (LOWER CRACKS LEFT) (TOP CENTER)
H_E'AT TREAT
CRACK
DUE
TO SHARP
MACHINING
MARKS
Figure
7-12.
Heat
Treat
Cracks
Discontinuity 7-21
SHRINK
Processing Ferrous
CHARACTERISTICS face and of the shalIow, weld, (See fusion and Figure zone, deep. 7-13.) and base Cracks metal. may run Range parallel in size or
very
to open
METALLURGICAL shrink that cracks exceed of the or welding NDT a. METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)
the Heating
result of the
heat causing
either set up
in
or welding
or cooling or expansion)
in a localized of the
strength (contraction
to crack. heating,
material
up excessive
APPLICATION
AND LIMITATIONS METHOD normally is easily detected portable and by liquid and penetrant. during
(3)
and mask
the
adjoining
(4)
When articles are dried sive drying temperature the penetrant. PARTICLE weIdments discontinuities indications
excesof
b.
MAGNETIC (1) (2) Ferrous Surface produce field. (3) Areas might solids
TESTING are
METHOD tested parallel do not by magnetic to the interrupt magnetic or distort particle field the method. will not
since
magnetic
fittings, be masked
bearing before
races, testing.
or other
similar solution
items
that
or clogged
by the
suspension
or magnetic
7-22
c.
CURRENT
TESTING
L,
confined or encircling
article
d.
TESTING
for
the
detection for
of weldments
e.
of NDT
penetrant
results,
TRANSVERSE
CRACKSIN
HEAT-AFFECTED
ZONE
TYPICAL
STAR-SHAPED
CRATER
CRACK
SHRINKAGE
CRACK
AT WELD
TERMINAL
J v
Figure
7-13.
Surface
Shrink
Crack
Discontinuity
7-23
THREAD
CHARACTERISTICS transverse 7-14.) ANALYSIS type are not uncommon. act on the stress risers cracks may start in the direction APPLICATION of applied AND High cyclic stresses created by the thread submicroscopic stresses. resulting from roots and and/ to the grain (transgranular) starting at the root of the
Figure
as fine
discontinuities
NDT a.
PENETRANT
TESTING
penetrant
is recommended such
(3)
to components should
within
an assembly masked
or
structure, overspraying. b. MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally IrreIevent ation. Cleaning may c. EDDY thread ment d. result
the
be effectively
to prevent
PARTICLE used
TESTING
METHOD
on ferrous
magnetic
indications
(3)
titanium
and
440C
stainless to the
hydrocarbons
for
detecting equip-
speciaIized
TESTING
METHOD. does
Not
recommended itself
for
detecting testing.
thread
configuration
not lend
to ultrasonic
7-24
e.
RADIOGRAPHIC thread designed tight and extremely cracks. for the surface difficult.
for
detection
by radiography
COMPLETE
THREAD
ROOT
FAILURE
TYPICAL
THREAD
ROOT
FAILURE
MICROGRAPH ROOT
OF (A)
SHOWING
CRACK
AT
BASE
OF
TRANSGRANULAR
Figure
7-14.
Thread
Crack
Discontinuity
7-25
715 1.
2. 3. Tubing (See 4. Tubing
TUBING
CRACKS
(INCONEL
"X") _J
Inherent Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS on the inner surface (I.D.), parallel to direction of grain flow.
METALLURGICAL I.D. a. b. cracks Improper Foreign causing heated c. may cold material
ANALYSIS be attributed reduction may the heating in the to one of the have and annealing rate been cracking operation. to the annealing temperature with possible cracking tube or a combination during fabrication. on the the cold inner worked surface material of the was tubes of the following:
embedded when
embrittlement during
Insufficient occurring
1200-1400
5.
NDT a.
CURRENT used
METHOD of this type of discontinuity. (0. 156 inch} are well within
Normally The
detection
diameter
(1 inch) capability.
and wall
thickness
material
may
be difficult.
METHOD gauge tubing. and transducers of this varying type. limitations. high sulfur content are available for screening
on heavy
of equipment
internal transducers
couplants effect
on high
alloys.
Co
7-26
(2)
Discontinuity graphic
orientation
and
thickness
of material
govern
the
radio-
sensitivity. forms and of NDT reliable. TESTING METHOD. would Not recommended to process for detecting and (eddy current and ultrasonic) are more economical,
(3)
Other faster,
d.
discontinuity
be difficult
eo
MAGNETIC nonferrous
TESTING conditions.
METHOD.
Not applicable.
Material
is
+LL "
TYPICAL
MICROGRAPH OF (B)
Figure
7-15.
Tubing
Crack
Discontinuity 7-27
FLAKE Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS surface, flakes appear flakes found as bright Sometimes are in heavy silvery known steel areas. as chrome thin and forgings, On an checks generally billets,
as short They
hairline bars.
extremely
METALLURGICAL are only NDT a. internal in heavy METHODS ULTRASONIC (!) (2) Used fissures
ANALYSIS attributed of hydrogen forgtngs. AND METHOD for the detection of hydrogen flake. successfully using surface condition LIMITATIONS steel to stresses during produced cooling after by localized hot working. transformaUsually
and decreased
solubility alloy
APPLICATION TESTING
extensively
Material in the wrought condition can be screened either the immersion or the contact method. The will determine the method most suited. flake will
(3)
On the A-scan presentation, hydrogen the screen or as loss of back reflection. AI1 foreign removed gouges, tool materials prior to any marks, (loose testing. and scarfing scale, dirt, may
appear
as hash
on
(4)
oil, cause
grease) loss
should such
be as nicks,
Surface
irregularities
of back
reflection.
b.
PARTICLE used
TESTING
on finished
machined discontinuities
(3)
deep
tool
marks
may
obliterate
the detection
(4)
direction
is questionable, directions.
it may
be necessary
to magnetize
7-28
e.
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTINGMETHOD. Not normally used for detecting flakes. Discontinuities are very small and tight andwould be difficult to detect by liquid penetrant. EDDY CURRENT TESTINGMETHOD. Not recommendedfor detecting flakes. The metallurgical structure of ferrous materials limits their adaptability to the use of eddy current. RADIOGRAPHICTESTINGMETHOD, Not recommende_dfordetecting flakes. The size of the discontinuity, its location and orientation with respect to the material surface restricts the application of radiography.
d.
e.
v,.,_
Figure
7-16.
Hydrogen
Flake
Discontinuity 7-29
717
1. 2. 3. Surface.
EMBRITTLEMENT Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS (interface) that was (See with no orientation to pickling 7-17.) or direction. and/or plating Found or in and Service
in highly material 4.
treated
subjected Figure
METALLURGICAL such hydrogen material METHODS MAGNETIC (1) (2) Magnetic Hydrogen follow (3) Magnetic plating. (4) Care or (5) should the as pickling at the
cleaning
prior
creating
immediate
AND LIMITATIONS TESTING appear METHOD as a fractured are randomly pattern. orientated and may
cracks field.
testing
should
be accomplished
before
and after
be taken
or irrelevant
indications
cause
damage
to the resistant
in the
annealed
condition,
magnetic
cold
working.
b.
PENETRANT used
TESTING
METHOD hydrogen are extremely may embrittIement. tight, mask the small, and difficult
on the Subsequent
deposit
discontinuity.
c.
TESTING used
hydrogen do not,
method
(3)
Equipment Recommend
of detecting_ technique.
hydrogen
embrittlement
surface
wave
7-30
d.
F_ -J
EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting hydrogen embrittlement. Many variables inherent in the specific material may produce conflicting patterns. METHOD. The sensitivity cases in excess Not recommended required to detect of radiographic for detecting hydrogen capabilities.
e.
TESTING is in most
embrittlement.
"
DETAILED
CRACK
PATTERN
OF HYDROGEN
EMBRITTLEMENT
_:,_:
L.
Figure
7-17.
Hydrogen
Embrtttlement
Discontinuity
7-31
,_
*.k
INCLUSIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and and subsurface. may (See appear Figure Processing Ferrous and (Weldments) Nonferrous Welded Material
CHARACTERISTICS Inclusions singly 7-18.) ANALYSIS generally material particles entrapped of metals inclusions in the of different are weld oxides, density sulphides, the as compared slag weld or metal may be any shape. They may be metallic throughout or nonthe
or be linearly
distributed
or scattered
weldment. 4. Metallic
to the weld
metal. foreign
Non-metallic
or between
APPLICATION
AND LIMITATIONS
RADIOGRAPHIC
TEsTINGMETHOD method inclusions shaped, is universally used. as sharply defined, and may be isolated round, or in V
(i) This
NDT
(2) Metallic
erratically small (3)
appear on the radlograi_h or elongated white spots groups. will appear on the
linear
or scattered inclusions
as contours
of
density
(4)
b.
to thin may
be required
7-_2
(3)
The
indications
would and
appear
Jagged,
irregularly
shaped, -
indivtdually
would
may magnetic
the
TESTING used
:: ;_,;
applications testing::
i--..:_ _=:_ _,_,:,_ _ ,_._ ;_7_ , ,i__ -v_,_i _ii.,_ .>iii,_:).,_.,._-_,,, _ E-ST!_-G fissures. _,.E.T_OD .Nqt applicable, Inclasions
L_QUm PEN'ETRAN_
arelormaiiynot open
0
7-33
719
INC LUSIONS
1. 2. 3.
CHARACTERISTICS bar) long or surface (after lines in groups. and not parallel Figure ANALYSIS (stringers) melting. APPLICATIONS TESTING used will AND METHOD inclusions in wrought interfaces material. the metal. Small a loss in excessive LIMITATIONS are inclusions caused are by the caused existence by particles of slag or oxides in 7-19. ) machining). The other type lines. There are and Found two quite types: tightly one adherent. as extruded,
straight
parallel
is non-plastic, in forged,
appearing
material.
METALLURGICAL inclusions or ingot. during METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally Inclusions billet
Non-plastic
remaining
in the
to evaluate appear
as definite
within
clustered condition or conditions on different back reflection. Numerous small scattered "noise".
(3) Inclusion orientation in relationship to ultrasonic beam (4) The direction of the ultrasonic beam direction of the grain flow whenver b. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD
is critical.
(i) Normally
used for thin wail tubing and small diameter rods. materials can be difficult. METHOD surface.
(i) Normally
used on machined
(2) Inclusions will appear as a straight intermittent or as a continuous indication. They may be individual or clustered.
(3) The magnetic technique should be such that a surface or near surface inclusion can be satisfactorilydetected when its axis is in any direction.
7-34
(4) A knowledge of the grain flow of the material will be parallel to that direction. (5) i
i
d,
is critical
since
inclusions
Certain
types
of steels
are
more
prone
to inclusions
than
other.
LIQUTD
(i) (2)
PENETRANT
used
TESTING
METHOD
inclusions in wrought material. surface. NDT methods
f
e.
for detecting
not openings
in the material
RADIOGRAPHIC designed
METHOD.
for surface
surface
inclusions.
== =
J
C MICROGRAPH OF TYPICAL INCLUSION D
SHOWING
Figure
7-19.
Wrought
Inclusion
Discontinuity
7-35
LACK
OF
PENETRATION
CHARACTERISTICS Generally the weld. irregular (See Figure and filamentary 7-20. ) oeeuring at the root and
ANALYSIS of joint not reaching welding fusion rate, temperature too large before weld rod, metal was cold a
caused
by fast
a welding
or too
METHODS
APPLICATION TESTING
AND
LIMITATIONS
on a wide
on the of the
radiograph at the
dark
and
It may weld
be continuous
or intermittent
Lack of penetration source is critical. Sensitivity levels di s c ontinuitie s. TESTING used weld for
orientation
in relationship
to the
radiographic
(4)
govern
the
capability
to detect
small
or tight
b.
METHOD specific applications. or thin testing. appear on the scope as a definite break or a crack and will give a very sharp reflection. test results is difficult unless equipment wail weldments do not lend
configurations,
to ultrasonic
(4)
7-36
c.
EDDY
CURRENT
TESTING
METHOD
(i) Normally
pipe and tubing. (2) Eddy current can be used where the configuration requirement d. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING other nonferrous articles can meet
used where backside of weld is visible. appears TESTING where backside appears as an irregular METHOD of weld is visible. indication of varying indication of varying width.
Normally
as an irregular
(3)
penetrant
and
the
developer
could
contaminate
re-welding
operation.
INADEQUATE
ROOT
PENETRATION
PENETRATION
OF BUTT
WELD
PENETRATION
k.J
Figure
7-20.
Lack
of Penetration
Discontinuity
7-37
721
1. 2. 3. Surface surface Found 4.
LAMINATIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and internal. of the in forged, material. extruded, Inherent Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material
CHARACTERISTICS Fiat, extremely contain roiled and thin, a thin material. generally film (See aligned Figure parallel the 7-21.) to the surfaces. work
May
of oxide
between
ANALYSIS or weaknesses They and are may made be the thin. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD material makes may selected methods the geometry their detection depending and orientation of lamination directional generally result aligned parallel seam, Laminations to the work inclusions, are flat-
of pipe, by working.
blister,
extremely
heavier
to the wave
beam) modes
limited upon
be used
thickness or method contact or immersion (3) Lamination reflection. Through very b. MAGNETIC (I) Articles lamination (2) (3) Magnetic Magnetic size c. LIQUID (1) thin will appear
and
as a definite
a loss
of back
(4)
and
reflection
techniques
are
applicable
for
TESTING from
as a straight, capable
intermittent the
indication. over-alI
of determining
of the
TESTING on nonferrous
Normally
7-38
(2)
may
smear
surface
of material
lamination. the effectiveness is essential. used sheet to detect stock. for detecting in the almost direction impossible. laminaof liquid penetrant
(3)
Acid testing.
surface
do
EDDY tions.
CURRENT If used,
METHOD. must
ej
radiographic
i i
!
I
!
i
_7
LAMINATION
IN 0.250
IN. PLATE
LAMINATION
IN 0.040
TITANIUM
SHEET
LAMINATION ORIENTATION
Figure
7-21.
Lamination
Discontinuity
7-39
722
1. 2. 3. Surface. cracks. and 4.
LAPS
CHARACTERISTICS often quite (See deep in the Figure and sometime pitch, very and tight, major appearing diameter as hairline of the thread,
in rolled of rolling.
threads
minor, 7-22.)
in direction
METALLURGICAL
ANALYSIS faulty or oversized dies or an overfill of material may over and flattened into the surface of the thread but not
During the rolling operation, cause material to be folded fused. NDT a. METHODS LIQUID
APPLICATION PENETRANT
AND
LIMITATIONS METHOD
TESTING
(1) Compatibility with both ferrous and nonferrous materials makes fluorescent liquid penetrant the first choice. (2) Liquid penetrant indications will be circumferential, slightlycurved, intermittent or continuous indications. Laps and seams individuallyor in clusters. (3) Foreign material may not only interfere with the penetration of the penetrant into the discontinuitybut may penetrant in a nondefective area. (4) Surface of threads may be smeared sealing offlaps and seams. (5) Fluorescent and dye penetrants are not compatible. Dye penetrants due to rolling operation, thereby cause an accumulation of may occur
tend to killthe fluorescent qualities in fluorescent penetrants. b. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD as
(1) Magnetic particle indications would generally appear the same liquid penetrant. (2) Irrelevent magnetic indications may configuration. result from the thread
(3) Questionable magnetic particles indications can be verified by liquid penetrant testing.
7-40
e.
EDDY laps
TESTING Article
METHOD. configuration
used
for
detecting
d.
TESTING Thread
METHOD.
recommended ultrasonic
configurations METHOD.
e.
orientation
of discontinuities
the capability
TYPICAL
AREAS
OF FAILURE
LAPS
AND
SEAMS
FAILURE
OCCURRING
AT
ROOT
OF THREAD
AREAS
WHERE
LAPS
AND
SEAMS
USUALLY
OCCUR
Figure
7-22.
Laps
and
Seams
Discontinuity
in Rolled
Threads
7-41
723
i. 2. 3.
LAPS
AND SEAMS
%J
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY
a.
CHARACTERISTICS Wavy usually smeared (See lines enter closed. Figure Lengthy, with tubing. ANALYSIS blowholes, in the cracks, direction splits, of roiling is very result of the sizing occur from material, part and small. improper corners in material roiling, may being forging, be folded flattened or sizing over or into the tears introduced The in earlier distance between the 7-23.) often grain quite and deep and sometimes spiral when very tight, usually with usually the surface Found not very in wrought pronounced angle. forgings, or tightly Laps plate, may adherent have surface bar,
at a small
openings
tubing,
Do
at times
associated
4. Seams
METALLURGICAL originate and innerfaces are similar During may but not NDT a. exist fused. from elongated of the to seams the
or forging.
processing Laps
during
of the article.
LIMITATIONS METHOD for ferrous and seams may material. be detected by this
TESTING
is recommended laps
and near-surface
seams They
may may
appear
as a straight,
spiral,
curved or
be individual
or clustered
(4)
of laps
and
seams than
Therefore, detection of a
greater
(5) Correct
should
be used lie
when
examining nearly
for parallel
may
in a plane
7-42
TESTING
Liquid Laps
by liquid (3)
Liquid penetrant testing of laps and seams can be by heating the article before applying the penetrant. TESTING used wave and METHOD wrought permits and material accurate prior
improved
slightly
c.
ULTRASONIC
(1) (2)
to test technique
evaluation
size
of Iaps
(3)
d.
of laps
CURRENT used
METHOD evaluation of laps by eddy and current seams where in tubing article and pipe.
be screened
configura-
e.
METHOD. material.
for
detecting the
between
discontinuity size and the material thickness _in most cases, discontinuities have a very direction of the X-ray _ 1m,_,_l imnnssible. beam, thereby making
TYPICAL
FORGING
LAP
MICROGRAPH
OF A LAP
Figure
7-23.
Laps
and
Seams
Discontinuity
in Wrought
Material 7-43
724
1. 2. 3.
CHARACTERISTICS
Internal. Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear as concentrated porosity in cross section. 4. METALLURGICAL occurs void while (See Figure 7-24.)
ANALYSIS the metal by its is in a plastic areas by the appearance or semi-molten the time state. shrinkage If sufficient will leave range point cona it
metal
cannot
flow
into different
is identified
in the plastic
AND
LIMITATIONS
METHOD
(i) Radiography
LIQUID
PENETRANT
TESTING
of the indication depends on the plane through which varies from a continuous porous indication. porous
the condition has been cut. The appearance hairline to a massive (4) Penetrant may
casting affectingtheir abilityto accept a surface treatment. (5) Serious structural and a dimensional damage to the article can result
from the improper use of acids or alkalies. They should never be used unless approval is obtained.
7-44
c.
EDDY
CURRENT to eddy
METHOD. configuration
Not and
recommended type
for
of discontinuity
for
detecting
microfactors. is
restricting
PARTICLE
METHOD.
applicable.
Material
BUSHING
=i. -
ACK
Figure
7-24.
Micro-Shrinkage
Discontinuity
7-45
GAS POROSITY CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or subsurface. at the point. May also Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments
CHARACTERISTICS Rounded Scattered be concentrated ANALYSIS by gas entrapment cleaning AND METHOD method for the detection in the molten metal, too much moisture or elongated, uniformly at the root teardrop throughout or toe. (See shaped the with weld or without or isolated 7-25. ) a sharp in small
discontinuity
Figure
or improper
or preheating.
APPLICATION TESTING
LIMITATIONS
(1) Radiography is the most universally used NDT of gas porosity in weldments.
(2) The radiographic image of a 'round' porosity will appear as oval shaped spots with smooth edges, while 'elongated' porosity will appear as oval shaped spots with the major longer than the minor axis. (3) Foreign material such as loose scale, flux, or splatterwill affect validity of test results. b. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD axis sometimes several times
(1) Ultrasonic testing equipment is highly sensitive, capable of detecting micro-separatlons. Established standards should be used if valid test results are to be obtained. (2) Surface finish and grain size will affect the validityof the test results. c. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD
(1) Normally
confined to thin wall welded pipe and tube. than one-quarter inch.
(2) Penetration restricts testing to a depth of more d. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD
7-46
(2)
like
magnetic
particle,
is restricted
to
(3)
to prevent penetrant
any
cleaning from
material, becoming
materials operation.
e.
PARTICLE used
porosity defined
be evident. it is neither
Near strong
surface
porosity
would
or pronounced.
TYPICAL
SURFACE
POROSITY
CROSS-SECTION POROSITY
OF (A)SHOWING
EXTENT
OF
SHOWING
TYPICAL
Figure
7-25.
Gas Porosity
Discontinuity
7-47
726 1. 2.
3. Internal.
UNFUSED
POROSITY
Processing Aluminum CHARACTERISTICS fissures aligned forged, ANALYSIS to porosity is oxidized processing, which is in the cast ingot. shape. of a foreign in an extremely During If the the rolling, they parallel with the grain Figure flow. 7-26. ) Found in wrought
kj
is rolled,
or extruded.
(See
or extruding during
it is flattened
internal
or is composed
material,
subsequent
thin interface
NDT a.
AND METHOD
LIMITATIONS
extensively may
of unfused
wrought
location of the
discontinuity
is unknown,
(5)
b.
METHOD machined as a straight Liquid articles. line of varying is restricted lengths run-
Normally Unfused
penetrant
to surface
such the
as vapor surface
blasting, discontinuities,
honing,
or sanding
may
thereby
restricting
reliability
penetrant
Excessive
of powder
7-48
c.
EDDY unfused
CURRENT porosity.
TESTING
METHOD.
Not
normally
used
for
detecting
d.
METHOD detecting are which unfused difficult that porosity. to detect the by a method be which parallel
discontinuities density or
discontinuity
perpendicular PARTICLE
to the
e.
MAGNETIC nonferrous.
TESTING
Not
applicable.
Material
is
UNFUSED POROSITY EQUIVALENT TO 1/64, 3/64, 5/64 AND 8/64 (LEFT TO RIGHT)
rF.,.j
Figure
7-26.
Unfused
Porosity
Discontinuity
7-49
STRESS
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Range however, METALLURGICAL factors are static likely from
CHARACTERISTICS shallow transverse to very cracks deep, are and usually also possible. follow (See the grain flow 7-27.) of the
Figure
ANALYSIS for stress, faster residual the phenomenon 2) the presence to this levels at high of stress type corrosion to occur: environment, Stress from corrosion of stress. (applied) and
of a material of stresses
is susceptible
(internal)
as well
APPLICATION
AND LIMITATIONS METHOD used for the detection cleaning spraying of stress of articles, and corrosion. extreme of
be exercised articles.
to prevent
contamination
surrounding cleaning
(3)
before results
the if the
of Iiquid
penetrant time to
seriously
affect
not given
(4)
articles
may
contain and
moisture invalid
within results
the if the
discontinuity moisture
which is not
dilute,
contaminate,
b.
CURRENT
TESTING used
to detect
equipment
is capable is compatible
limitations.
c.
perpendicular
technique.
7-50
d.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
(1) (2} Not normally Configuration netic particle used
TESTING to detect
and usual
e.
RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally Surface application. with the use
METHOD stress detected technique. corrosion. by NDT can method shown designed stress for such
indications of the
However,
radiography
and has
corrosion
%.v
COUPLING
-----7
Figure
7-27.
Stress
Corrosion
Discontinuity
7-51
CHARACTERISTICS Range will which in size has from short to long, (See Figure shallow 7-28.) to very tight the and
be found
in the
direction
of the grain
flow with
exception
of stress
corrosion,
no direction.
METALLURGICAL tubing
Hydraulic
a.
discontinuities
in contact with of the tube. of material blowholes, and which then are
the tube
b. c.
being
folded
and
from
cracks, elongated
d.
is due
to the presence
of a corrosive
environ-
NDT a.
AND
LIMITATIONS
CURRENT
to the
penetration nature
of the
(3)
discontinuities
may
not be valid
unless
by known
standards.
Testing
of ferro-magnetic be free
material of any
b.
TESTING for
Not normally
detecting
faster,
7-52
c.
L=
TESTING used
METHOD for detecting tubing over range discontinuities. testing since it is faster and non-
ultrasonic of surface
and more economical ferrous material. d. RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally The size TESTING used for
discontinuity
METHOD detecting tubing discontinuities. configuration of material of the for this article group
and type
of discontinuity for
METHOD.
Not
applicable.
Material
INTERGRANULAR
CORROSION
LAPIN
OUTER
SURFACE
OF
TUBING
EMBEDDED
FOREIGN
MATERIAL
TWIN
LAPS
IN OUTER
SURFACE
OF TUBING
,F
"N_./"
Figure
7-28.
Hydraulic
Tubing
Discontinuity
7-53
729 i. 2. 3.
DISCONTINUITY
CHARACTERISTICS from shallow even gouges to ragged within the gouged area. (See
Internal surface of thick-wall tubing. Range tears. Figure 7-29. ) 4. During passes portion the Certain 5. METALLURGICAL the manufacture the offset tubing material of material ANALYSIS of thick-wail roils. may may are break more seamless
tubing, mandrel
surface
of the
slug
of failure
CURRENT used
Normally Eddy
current
be confined
to nonferrous
qualitative,
indications. indications.
b.
of thick-wail
pipe
or tube
for
mandrel
to test
both
and only.
nonferrous
pipe
or tube.
access
from
in support
of production
line
since
it is adaptable
for
instrumentation. of mandrel indications TESTING used drag drag on the or tear scope. will produce very sharp and
(5)
Configuration noticeable
c.
METHOD it has been instrumental welds. around the circumference in the detection
although during
examination several
of adjacent exposures
requires
7-54
(3)
This slow
method and
is not for
designed large
production of pipe
since
it is very
costly will
(4)
do
Radiograph
two dimensions
not the
LIQUID mandrel
e.
PARTICLE drag.
TESTING particles.
Discontinuities
enough
mandrel
in seam-
EMBEDDED
SLUG
SHOWING
DEEP GOUGE
MARKS
SLUG
Figure
7-29.
Mandrel
Drag
Discontinuity
7-55
730
1. 2. 3. Internal. diodes, 4.
SEMICONDUCTORS
k.$
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Appear resistors, Processing Hardware CHARACTERISTICS sizes damaged, capacitors. ANALYSIS such lead as loose between connections AND wire, internal are the weld splash, and flakes, case, of processing solder and balls, and shapes (See and Figure various 7-30. ) degrees hardware. of density. Found They may and Service
be misformed,
or broken
internal
in transistors,
clearance
elements product
inclusions errors.
or around
NDT a.
METHODS
APPLICATION TESTING
LIMITATIONS
RADIOGRAPHIC
(2) The configuration and internal structure of the various semiconductors limit the NDT (3) Semiconductors method to radiography. that have copper heat sinks may require more than one
technique due to the density of the copper. (4) Internal wires in semiconductors aluminum, may are very fine and may be constructed
from materials of differentdensity such as copper, silver, gold and If the latter is used with the others, special techniques be needed to resolve its reliability. require the highest sensitivityto resolve. may
(6) The complexity of the internal structure of semiconductors of discontinuities due to masking by hardware.
(7) Positive positioning of each semiconductor interpretation. (8) Source angle should give minimum (9) Preliminary
examination of semiconductors
a vidcon system that would allow visual observation during 360 degree rotation of the article.
V
7-56
b,
EDDY struction
CURRENT of the
METHOD. Nature
E-
semiconductor
themselves METHOD.
c.
MAGNETIC
PARTICLE
Not recommended
ing semiconductor d.
e.
Not recommended
for
detecting
semi-
discontinuities.
STRANDS
BROKEN
IN HEATER
BLANKET
FINE
CRACK
IN PLASTIC
CASING
MATERIAL
BROKEN
ELECTRICAL
CABLE
FOREIGN
MATERIAL
WITHIN
SEMICONDUCTOR
Figure
7-30.
Semiconductor
Discontinuity
7-57
731 i. 2. 3. Internal
HOT
CHARACTERISTICS Appear as ragged (See line Figure of variable 7-31.) width and numerous
surface. singly
METALLURGICAL cracks the may that NDT a. (tears) surface originate adjoin are
rupture
up by the more
of metal, AND
METHODS
LIMITATIONS
METHOD is the first choice may since the material and is cast
discontinuities
surface. influence
Orientation of the hot tear the test results. The sensitivity tears. level may
in relation
may
kJ
not be sufficient to detect fine surface hot
(3)
b_
particIe configuration
metallurgical
composition
may
make
difficult. particle be used not removed can for detect final prior near analysis. to testing will cause an invalid surface hot tears,
co
TESTING
Liquid Liquid
is recommended is confined
to surface
7-58
(3}
The ing
use the
on
act
as
by
saturatfinish.
%J
(4)
d.
ability after
Repeatability
of time. hot do
recommended associated
detecting structure
type
e,
recommended complex
for
detecting do
hot
configurations
TYPICAL
OF CASTING
CLOSE-UP
OF HOT TEARS
iN (A)
CLOSE-UP
OF HOT TEARS
IN (B)
Figure 7-31.
Hot Tear
Discontinuity 7-59
732
I. 2. 3. Surface appear from the 4. Two
INTERGRANULAR CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or internal. singly the fact or that (See very
CORROSION Service Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS A series of small The insidious in any corrosion extend 7-32.) ANALYSIS to intergranular corrosion are: cormicro-openings nature direction or corrosion with product following no definite is visible the grain pattern. results surface. of on the May
of tntergranular
corrosion
Intergranular material.
corrosion Figure
boundaries
structure of the material as unstabilized 300 series relieving corrosion. or heat Either treat
that is prone to intergranuIar stainless steel. may create attack. the susceptibility with
b.
stress atmosphere
to a cor-
of these
conditions
coupled
wiI1 result
5.
NDT a.
APPLICATION
AND
Liquid type
to the
size
and location
of this
(2)
Chemical
before and
the
application affect
of the
seriously
may
release
chlorine
and accelerate
intergranuIar
problem.
(2) Sensitivitylevels may prevent the detection of fine intergranular corrosion. (3) Radiography may not determine rosion will occur. on which surface the Intergranu]ar corV
7-60
c.
TESTING
METHOD for the screening to this may of intergranular method seriously of NDT affect corrosion. testing. the output
readily material
Metallurgical indications.
structure
of the
d.
TESTING the
used
although
the
capability
e.
PARTICLES corrosion.
METHOD. of discontinuity
intergranular of magnetic
particles.
.i
_-
f-
"
"
.1
;% -j
MICROGRAPH SURFACE
OF INTERGRANULAR SUBSURFACE
CORROSION CORROSION
SHOWING
LIFTING
OF
FROM
#____
SHOWING EVIDENCE
NATURE OF
OF INTERGRANULAR IS EVIDENT
CORROSION
Figure
7-32.
Intergranular
Corrosion
Discontinuity 7-61