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L
Asst Professor of Physiology
SSMC, Tumkur
Introduction
• Spontaneous respiration due rhythmic
discharge of motor neurons
• Center for rhythmic discharge is in
brainstem
• Respiratory center is influenced by higher
centers, reflexes and internal chemical
changes.
Neural control of breathing
• Voluntary control: located in cerebral
cortex
• Automatic control: pacemaker cells in
medulla
• Final common path: motor neurons of
respiratory muscles
• Reciprocal innervations
Respiratory center
• Several groups of neurons In pons and
medulla
• Groups:-
(i) Pre-Bötzinger complex
(ii) Dorsal & ventral respiratory group
(iii) Pneumotaxic center
(iv) Apneustic center
Respiratory pattern generator
Pre-Bötzinger complex:
Small group of coupled pacemaker cells.
Located between nucleus ambiguus and
lateral reticular nucleus
Produce rhythmic discharges in phrenic
nerves
NK1(substance P) & μ-opioid receptors
5HT4 receptors
Dorsal respiratory group
• Extends most length of medulla in the
region of NTS
• Receives afferents from airways &
chemoreceptors
• Thought to be respiratory pattern
generator- rhythmic drive to phrenic N
• Primarily ‘I’ neurons
• Lesioning will not abolish automatic
respiratory rhythm
Ventral respiratory group
• Located anterior and lateral to dorsal
group in nucleus ambiguus & nucleus
retroambiguus.
• (i) Cranial division- innervates accessory
muscles via X N
• (ii) Caudal division- inspiratory &
expiratory drive to intercostal muscles
(‘I’ and ‘E’ neurons with reciprocal
innervation)
• Contribute to extra respiratory drive
Pneumotaxic centre
4 th Ventricle
Apneustic centre
Dorsal respiratory group
Ventral Respiratory group
Pneumotaxic center
• Medial parabrachial and kölliker-fuse
nuclei of dorsolateral pons
• Normal function is unknown
• Lesioning will prolong respiration and
increase tidal volume
• Limits inspiration
• Inhibit neurons of apneustic center
Apneustic center
• Present in lower pons
• Activate inspiratory neurons of medulla
• Inhibited by vagal input and pneumotaxic
center
Experimental inferences
• Sec A & Sec D- respiratory centre
between these sections i.e brain stem
• Sec C- rhythmic respiration with or
without vagus- rhythmically discharging
neurons in medulla; reciprocal
innervation; influence by other parts
• Sec B- apneustic centre in lower pons; it
is inhibited by vagus and pnemotaxic
centre
Inspiratory ramp signal
• Inspiratory signals are not instantaneous
bursts
• Begins weakly and rises steadily in a ramp
like manner for 2secs.
• Ceases abruptly for next 3secs
• Advantage- causes steady increase in
lung volume
• Pneumotaxic center controls switch-off
point of ramp signal
VOLUNTARY CONTROL
• Voluntary hyperventilation, breath holding,
etc
• Limited duration
• Via corticospinal tract ending on motor
neurons innervating respiratory muscles
GENESIS OF RESPIRATION
(+)
Pneumotaxic center
(-)
(-)
Apneustic centre
(-) (+)
XN
Intercostal N
Phrenic N
LUNGS
Factors affecting respiratory center
1. Chemical stimuli
2. Non-chemical stimuli
Chemical regulation
• PaO2, PaCO2 and pH
Reduced K+ efflux
Depolarization
Release of catecholamines
pH 7.3 pH 7.4
100
PAO2 (mm Hg)
20 60 100 20 60
Pulmonary ventilation (l/min)
40
30
20
10
6 ---------------------------------------------------------------
Resting ventilation
0
30 Apnoea point 40
50
Inhibition of inspiration
Prolonged expiration
2. Hering-Breuer deflation reflex: decrease
in duration of expiration following marked
deflation of lungs.
3. J-reflex:
Hyperinflation of lungs
Juxtacapillary receptors
Pulmonary C fibers
Reflex apnoea,
followed by tachypnoea,
hypotension and bradycardia
J receptors:
• Juxta-pulmonary capillary receptors
• A.S.Paintal, 1955
• May have physiological role in severe
exercise
• Role in pathological conditions like
pulmonary congestion, edema, embolus
and strong irritants.
II. Responses mediated by proprioceptors:
Increase in rate and depth of respiration; during
exercise
III. Responses mediated by irritant receptors:
• Cough reflex- protective; deep inspiration
followed by forced expiration against closed
glottis and sudden opening of glottis
• Sneeze reflex- similar reflex with an open
glottis and expiration through nose
IV. Afferents from baroreceptors:
Inhibit respiration by inhibition of respiratory
centre
Adrenaline Apnoea
V. Afferents from higher centers:
5. Cerebral cortex-
Frontal cortex inhibit respiration.
Motor cortex stimulate respiration.
8. Hypothalamus and limbic system:
Pain, emotional stimuli
Fever
VI. Respiratory components of visceral
reflexes:
• Deglutition reflex- causes apnea by
inhibition of respiratory centre via IX N.
• Hiccup- spasmodic contraction of
diaphragm; closure of glottis during
inspiration
• Yawning- deep inspiration probably to
prevent collapse of alveoli.