Rm1vol 1

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Mechanics of Materials Student Workbook -Volume IEng. Ion S. Simulescu, MPh, PhD, PE Associate Professor and Eng. Cristian Ghindea Assistant Professor
Bucharest 2004
PREFACE
The present textbook is the first volume from a series of textbooks, titled Mechanics of Materials Student Workbook, intended to familiarize the students enrolled in the first semester of their sophomore year at the Technical University of Bucharest, School of Civil Engineering, with the practical application of the theoretical concepts developed during the weekly lectures. This textbook has in fact a complementary role to the more theoretically orientated textbook published under the name of Lectures in Mechanics of Materials, volume I. A number of four chapters are covered in the textbook. Briefly, the organization is as follows: Chapter 1 - Stress-Strain Diagram and Material Properties; Chapter 2 Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam Cross-Section; Chapter 3 - Equilibrium of the Plane Linear Member and Chapter 4 - Axial Deformation. Each chapter starts with a theoretical section, named Theoretical Background, where the most important theoretical aspects are succinctly discussed. This section is followed by the Solved Problems section which contains a number of representative solved problems. Finally, the last section is the Proposed Problems section where a relatively large number of problems are proposed to the student for private exercise. With the intent to increase the student appetite towards using the modern capability of the numerical computer, the problems contained in the Solved Problems sections are solved using the MATHCAD software capabilities in parallel to the more classical method of the manual calculation. The first two chapters have a number of appendices attached. These appendices contain important engineering data necessary in solving some of the proposed problems. It is our pleasure to acknowledge the help that we received during the preparation of this textbook from our younger colleague Eng. George Vezeanu. Finally, the authors express their sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Eng. Dan Cretu, the Chairman of the Strength of Material Department, for his encouragements and support in the realization of this textbook. Dr. Eng Ion S. Simulescu Eng. Cristian Ghindea Bucharest, Romania. November, 2004.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Stress-Strain Diagrams and Material Properties
1.1 Theoretical Background
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 Tension Static Test Material Behavior Linear Elasticity, Hooks Law and Poissons Ratio
1.2 1.3
Solved Problems Proposed Problems
Appendix 1.1 Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons Ratio Appendix 1.2 Yield and Ultimate Stress
Chapter 2 Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam Cross-Section

2.1 2.2 2.3 Theoretical Background Solved Problems Proposed Problems
40
Appendix 2.1 Geometrical Characteristics of Plane Areas Appendix 2.2 Properties of the Romanian Rolled Shaped Sections Appendix 2.3 Properties of the U.S.A Rolled Shaped Sections
Chapter 3 Equilibrium of the Plane Linear Members

3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4
118
Type of Loads, Supports and Reactions Cross-Sectional Internal Resultants Types of Statically Determinate Beams Method 1 - Calculation of the Internal Resultants Using Method of Sections 3.1.5 Method 2 - Differential Relations between Loads and CrossSection Internal Resultants
3.2 3.3
- II -
Chapter 4 Axial Deformation

4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation Uniform-Axial Deformation Nonuniform-Axial Deformation
154
4.2 4.3
References
201
- III -
APPENDIX 1.1 Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons Ratio
- 37 -
APPENDIX 1.2 Yield and Ultimate Stress
- 38 -
- 39 -
APPENDIX 2.1 Geometrical Characteristics of Plane Areas
A = area y, z = distances to centroid C I y ,I z = moments of inertia with respect to the y and z axes, respectively I yz = product of inertia with respect to the y and z axes I P = I y + I z = polar moment of inertia with respect to the origin of the y and z axes I BB = moment of inertia with respect to axis B - B
- 104 -
- 105 -
- 106 -
- 107 -
- 108 -
APPENDIX 2.2 Properties of the Romanian Rolled Shaped Sections
TABLE 2.2.1 Wide Flange Sections (I SHAPES)
- 109 -
TABLE 2.2.2 Channel Sections (U SHAPES)
- 110 -
TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)
- 111 -
TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES) - continuation
- 112 -
TABLE 2.2.4 Angle Sections with Unequal Legs (L SHAPES)
- 113 -
APPENDIX 2.3 Properties of American Rolled Shaped Sections .
TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES)
- 114 -
TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES) - continuation
- 115 -
TABLE 2.3.2 Channel Sections (C SHAPES)
- 116 -
TABLE 2.3.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)
- 117 -
CHAPTER 1 Stress-Strain Diagrams and Material Properties

1.1. Theoretical Background 1.1.1 Tension Static Test Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagram for Structural Steel
The test is conducted by subjecting a specimen made of structural steel to a monotonically increasing loading. The specimen is schematically depicted in Figure 1.1.1 During the test a series of pairs (P*,d*) are collected and tabulated. Consequently, the normal stress * and the corresponding axial strain * are calculated as:
* =
P* A0 L* L0 L* = L0 L0
(1.1)
* =
where A0 =
(1.2)
* d02
4
is the initial area of the specimen and L* is the current
elongation.
Figure 1.1.1 The normal stress * and axial strain * calculated using the formulae (1.1) and (1.2) are called engineering stress and engineering stain, respectively. If the normal stress and the normal strain are calculated using the value of the measurements at the particular moment the normal stress and the corresponding axial strain are called true stress and true strain, respectively. They are calculated as:
true * =
P* Atrue
(1.3)
-1-
true * = ln(
L* L ) = ln(1 + ) = ln(1 + * ) L0 L0
(1.4)
Figure 1.1.2 The typical tensile stress-strain diagram for structural steel behavior is shown in Figure 1.1.2. This stress-strain diagram plotted in the plan is characterized by a number of defining points: Point A (PL ,PL) Point B (Y ,Y) Point C (EY ,EY) Point D (U ,U) Point E (F ,F) Point E (F ,F) - where PL is the proportional limit; - where Y is the yielding point; - where EY is the end stress of the perfect plastic region; - where U is the ultimate stress; - where F is the fracture stress; - where F is the true fracture stress.
The true stress-strain diagram is plotted with a dashed line above the engineering stress-strain diagram. For some materials (i.e. aluminum), which do not have after the proportional limit point a perfect plasticity region, the yield point is not easily identify and, consequently, it is determined using a method called the offset method. A straight line parallel to the initial linear part of the stress-strain diagram and passing through = 0.002 is drawn. The construction is shown in Figure 1.1.3. The point A is located at the intersection between the stress-strain diagram and the parallel line. The stress corresponding to point A is called offset yield stress and is used instead of the yield stress.
-2-
Figure 1.1.3 1.1.2 Material Behavior Non-Linear Elastic Behavior
Figure 1.1.4 The non-linear elastic behavior is characterized by a one-to-one correspondence between the stress and the strain. During loading or unloading for a given value of always corresponds the same value of . Mathematically this can be expressed as:
= f ( )
(1.5)
-3-
Non-Linear Elasto-Plastic Behavior
Figure 1.1.5 The elasto-plastic behavior is characterized by a different behavior during loading and unloading phases. During the unloading phase the material behaves elastically. Consequently, even when the load is completely removed a residual strain remains.
Figure 1.1.6 An idealized elasto-plastic behavior typical for structural steel is the Prandthls curve shown in Figure 1.1.6. This curve represents a material with an elastic-perfect plastic behavior.
-4-
Ductile and Brittle Materials
A material is ductile if can undergo large plastic strain before fracture. In contrast, a material which fails at small strain in classified as brittle. The difference between the behavior of a ductile and brittle material is schematically pictured in Figure 1.1.7.
Figure 1.1.7 The ductility of a material in tension is characterized by its elongation and reduction of the area at the cross-section where the failure occurs. The percentage elongation is defined as: percentage _ elongation = L failure L0 L0 * 100 (1.6)
where L0 and L failure are the original and failure gage lengths, respectively. The percentage reduction in area is obtained as: percentage _ reduction _ area = A0 A failure A0 * 100 (1.7)
where A0 and A failure are the original and failure areas, respectively. 1.1.3 Linear Elasticity, Hooks Law and Poissons Ratio A bar is loaded in tension, as shown in Figure 1.1.8.b, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction.
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Figure 1.1.8 The structural steel axially loaded under the proportionality limit PL behaves linearly elastic. Mathematically, the relation between the stress and strain is expressed by the Hooks Law:
= E *
if
PL
(1.8)
where E is the modulus of elasticity. The lateral strain lateral is proportional with the longitudinal strain . The relation is:
lateral = *
where is the Poissons ratio.
(1.9)
Consequently, the elastic behavior of a material is characterized by two material constants: the modulus of elasticity, E, and the Poissons ratio, . 1.2 Solved Problems Problem 1.2.1- Strain Measurements A mechanical extensometer uses the lever principle to magnify the elongation of a test specimen enough to make the elongation (or contraction) readable. The extensometer shown in Figure 1.2.1 is held against the test specimen by a spring that forces two sharp points against the specimen at A and B. The pointer AD pivots about a pin at C, so that distance between the contact points at A and B is exactly La = 15 cm (the gage length) of this extensometer when the pointer points to the origin, O, on the scale. In a particular test, the extensometer arm points "precisely" at point O when the load P is zero. Later in the test, the 25.5 cm long pointer points a distance d = 0.30 cm below point O. What is the current extensional strain in the test specimen at this reading? A. General Observations The body of the extensometer is considered rigid in comparison to the specimen subjected to deformation. Consequently, the distance BC remains unaffected by the deformation of the specimen. This finding implies that during the elongation only the point A can move from A to A*.
-6-
Figure 1.2.1 B. Calculations The distance AA* represents the current elongation L* . Using the geometrical ratio: L* d = 2.54 25.4 the current elongation L* is obtained:
L* = The strain is calculated as:
d 0.30 2.54 2.54 = = 0.03 cm 25.4 25.4
=
Problem 1.2.2- Stress-Strain Diagram
L* 0.03 = 0.002 L0 15.24
The tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.2.2.a, with an initial diameter d0=12 mm and a gage length L0 = 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation data contained in Table 1.2.1. Using the test data plot the stress-strain diagram and then calculate the following: (a) the proportional limit, (b) modulus of elasticity, (c) yield stress at 0.2% offset, (d) ultimate stress, (e) percent elongation and (g) percentage area.
Figure 1.2.2.a
-7-
Table 1.2.2 Load-Elongation Test Data Force (kN) 0.0 23.131 41.813 43.148 44.482 47.151 50.265 52.489 54.268 A. General Observations The initial measurements of the diameter and gage length of the specimen are:
d0 := 12 mm L0 := 50 mm
Elongation (mm) 0.000 0.127 0.229 0.254 0.330 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.270
Force (kN) 55.603 56.492 57.382 57.827 58.272 58.717 58.717 57.827 56.048
Elongation (mm) 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 2.540 2.794 3.048 3.302 3.505
Consequently the size of the original area is obtained as:

d0 *12 2 2 A0 = 113.097 mm A0 := 4 4
2
B. Calculations B.1 Calculation of the Stress-Strain Diagram The stress and strain corresponding to each measurement step are calculated using the collected values contained in Table 1.2.2. There are a number of eighteen (18) measured steps nread . The measured values of the elongation L and applied force P are collected into two separate vectors:
-8-
Force
Elongation
P :=
0.000 23.131 41.813 43.148 44.482 47.151 50.265 52.489 54.268 55.603 56.492 57.382 57.827 58.272 58.717 58.717 57.827 56.048
3 10 N
L :=
0.000 0.127 0.229 0.254 0.330 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.270 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 2.540 2.794
mm
3.302 3.505
3.048
The stress and strain values corresponding to each one of the measured steps are calculated using the formulae below: i := 1 .. nread i1 := Li1 L0
Pi1 A0
engineering strain
i1 :=
engineering stress
The obtained values are show in a tabular format below.
-9-
Strain
0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2.5410 -3 2 4.5810 -3 3 5.0810 -3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 6.610 -3 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.036 0.041 0.046 0.051 0.056 0.061 0.066 0.07
Stress
0 0 2.04510 8 3.69710 8 3.81510 8 3.93310 8 4.16910 8 4.44410 8 4.64110 8 4.79810 8 4.91610 8
Pa
10 4.99510 8 11 5.07410 8 12 5.11310 8 13 5.15210 8 14 5.19210 8 15 5.19210 8 16 5.11310 8 17 4.95610 8
The minimum and maximum values obtained are: min := 0 max := 17 0.07 min := 0 max := 15 5.192 *10 8 Pa
The graphical representation of the stress-strain diagram is shown in Figure 1.2.2.b. A qualitative analysis of the stress-strain diagram indicated an elasto-plastic behavior and consequently, a ductile behavior.
- 10 -
6 .10
8 min 5.4 .10 4.8 .10 4.2 .10 3.6 .10 i 3 .10
8
max max
2.4 .10 1.8 .10 1.2 .10 6 .10
min 0 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.04 0.048 0.056 0.064 0.072 0.08 i
Figure 1.2.2.b B.2 Calculation of the modulus of elasticity To obtain the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, representative for the elastic behavior of the material, the ratio of the stress and strain increased corresponding to each measured step is calculated:
k := 1 .. nread 1
k := k k1 k := k k1
stress increased strain increased
Ek :=
k k the ratio stress-strain
The numerical values of the ratio stress-strain obtained are tabulated below and plotted in Figure 1.2.2.c. It should be remarked that despite the fact that theoretically the modulus of elasticity is constant in the elastic range, due to the measurement errors a small variation is obtained.
- 11 -
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 0 8.05210 10 8.09710 10 2.36110 10 7.7610 9 6.62910 9 5.4210 9 3.87110 9 3.09610 9 2.32410 9 1.54710 9 1.54910 9 7.74510 8 7.74510 8 7.74510 8 0 -1.54910 9 -3.87410 9
E=
Pa
Ek
1 .10 10 9.25.10 .1010 8.5 10 7.75.10 10 7 .10 10 6.25.10 10 5.5 .10 10 4.75.10 10 4 .10 10 3.25.10 10 2.5 .10 10 1.75.10 10 1 .10 .109 2.5 9 5 .10 10 1.25.10 10 2 .10
11
8 k
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Figure 1.2.2.c The elastic range is represented by the almost constant variation and in this case ends after the third measurement point. The theoretical value of the modulus of elasticity is obtained by averaging the calculated values of the measurement steps pertinent to the elastic behavior:
nn := 2
- 12 -

Eaverage :=
k
nn
Ek 8.052 * 1010 + 8.097 *1010 10 Eaverage = 8.075 10 Pa 2
=1 nn
B.3 Calculation of the 0.2% Offset Stress The construction is shown in Figure 1.1.3. The line anchored at the offset strain value and parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram is constructed below using two description points: ( offset ,0) and ( offset + offset := 0.002
max
E average
, max )
j := 0 .. 1 strain
offset line := max + offset Eaverage
stress
line :=
max
0
2 10 3 line = 8.43 10 3
line =
Pa 8 5.192 10
0
The graphical construction is shown in Figure 1.2.2.d. The value of the stress offset corresponding to offset = 0.002 is obtained by reading the stress scale as:
offset = 3.9 * 10 8 Pa
This value can be considered as the yielding stress.
- 13 -
6 .10
5.4 .10min
8
max max
4.8 .10 4.2 .10 3.6 .10 3 .10

j
i line
2.4 .10 1.8 .10 1.2 .10 6 .10
min
0 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.04 0.048 0.056 0.064 0.072 0.08
i , line
Figure 1.2.2.d B.4 Calculation of the Ultimate Stress Analyzing the stress-strain diagram the value of the ultimate stress is obtained as: U := 15 U = 5.192 10 Pa B.5 Calculation of the Percentage Elongation The percentage elongation is calculated at failure: elongation_failure L17 := pelongation:= elongation_failure 3.505 * 100 pelongation= 7.01 % 100 50 L0
8
B.5 Calculation of the Percentage of Area Reduction The calculation of the area at failure is based on the assumption that volume remained constant during the deformation:
- 14 -
Lfailure:= L0 + elongation_failur 50 + 3.505 Lfailure= 53.505 mm A0 L0 113.097 * 50 2 Afailure= 105.689 mm Afailure:= 53.505 Lfailure The percentage reduction of the area is calculated as: pA := Afailure A0 105.689 113.097 pA = 6.551 % 100 113.097 A0
Problem 1.2.3 Two tension specimens with initial identical dimensions, diameter d0=12 mm and gage length L0 = 50 mm, are made of structural materials A and B, respectively. They are tested in tension until the failure is reached. The test data obtained is shown in Table 1.2.3. Conduct the following tasks: (a) calculate the percent elongation and the percent of reduction in the area at failure (b) draw to scale the idealized stress-strain diagram pertinent to both materials; (c) classify the material as either brittle or ductile and explain the judgment. Table 1.2.3 Tensile Test Data Data 1. Gage at failure 2. Diameter at failure 2. Modulus of Elasticity 3. Yield Stress 4. Ultimate Stress 5. Failure Stress 6. Ultimate Strain
A. General Observations The initial measurements of the specimen dimensions (gage length and diameter) are:
Material A 73.66 mm 6.68 mm 6.9x1010 Pa 3.5x107 Pa 8.9x107Pa 1.25 10 5 Pa 0.85 of ultimate
B 56.39 mm 11.96 mm 7.2x1010Pa 5.0x108Pa 5.7x108Pa 4.14 10 5 Pa 0.85 of ultimate
d0 := 12mm
L0 := 50mm
The initial area of the specimen is: A0 := ( d0) 4

2
(12 )2
4
A0 = 113.097 mm
- 15 -
B. Calculations B.1 Calculation of the percentage elongation The percentage elongations corresponding to both materials are: Lfa L0 73.66 50 100 pea = 47.32 pea := 100 50 L0 Lfb L0 56.39 50 100 peb = 12.78 100 peb := 50 L0 B.2 Calculation of the percentage reduction of the area The diameters and areas at failure, corresponding to material A and B, respectively, are:
dfa := 6.68 mm dfb := 11.96 mm
0
material A
material B
The areas at failure are: dfa * 6.68 2 2 Afa = 35.046 mm Afa := 4 4 dfb *11.96 2 2 Afb = 112.345 mm Afb := 4 4 The percentage of the area reduction is obtained as: parea_a := A parea_b := B B.3 Schematic plot of stress-strain relations The strain corresponding to the yielding point is: Afb A0 112.345 113.097 parea_b = 0.666 100 113.097 A0
0
Afa A0 35.046 113.097 parea_a = 69.012 100 113.097 A0
material
material
- 16 -
ya :=
ya Ea yb
3.5 *10 7 4 ya = 5.072 10 10 6.9 *10
material A
5.5 * 10 8 3 material B yb = 6.944 10 yb := 10 7.2 *10 Eb The strain at failure is calculated as: fa := fb := Lfa L0 73.66 50 fa = 0.473 50 L0 Lfb L0 56.39 50 fb = 0.128 50 L0 material A
material B
The strain corresponding to the ultimate stress: ua := 0.85 fa 0.85 * 0.473 ub := 0.85 fb 0.85 * 0.128 The representative points of the stress-strain curves are: material A material B 0
a :=
ya ua fa
a :=
ya ua fa
b :=
yb ub fb
b :=
0 yb ub
fb
The plot of the two stress-strain diagrams is shown in Figure 1.2.3.
- 17 -
6 .10
4.8 .10
stress
a b
3.6 .10
2.4 .10
1.2 .10
0.1
0.2
a , b strain
0.3
0.4
0.5
Figure 1.2.3 B.4 Classification of the materials The percentage of elongation previously calculated for the two materials is:
pea = 47.32
0 0
material A material B
peb = 12.78
The ductility ratios, other ductility indicators, are calculated as:

a := ua ya a = 792.948
b = 15.643
material A
b :=
ub yb
material B
It can be concluded that both materials show ductile behavior. Obviously the material A is more ductile than B.
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Problem1.2.4- Mechanical Properties of Materials A tensile specimen of a certain alloy has an initial diameter of 13 mm and a gage length of 200 mm. Under a load P = 20 kN, the specimen reaches its proportional limit and is elongated by 3 mm. At this load the diameter is reduced by 0.064 mm. Calculate the following material properties: (a) the proportional limit, (b) PL the modulus of elasticity, E, and (c) the Poisson's ratio, .
Figure 1.2.4 A. General Observations The initial measurements of the specimen dimensions (gage length and diameter) are: L0 = 200 mm d0 = 13 mm
The original area of the specimen is: d0 * 13 2 2 A0 = 132.732 mm A0 := 4 4 At the application of the axial load P = 20kN the proportional limit, defined by the
2
stress PL and the strain PL , is attained. B. Calculations
B.1 Calculation of proportional limit corresponding stress and strain The strain PL is calculated using the measured elongation L as:
PL :=
L 3mm PL = 0.015 200mm L0
The stress PL is obtained as:
PL :=
P 20000 N 8 PL = 1.507 10 Pa 132.732mm A0
- 19 -
B.2 The modulus of elasticity The modulus of elasticity is calculated:

E := PL PL
1.507 *10 8 Pa 10 E = 1.005 10 Pa 0.015
B.3 The Poissons Ratio The Poissons Ratio represents the ratio between the transversal strain PL _ transv and the longitudinal strain PL . Consequently, the transversal strain PL _ transv is obtained employing the reduction of the diameter d :
PL_trans :=
d 0.064mm 3 PL_trans = 4.923 10 13mm d0
The Poissons Ratio is calculated:
:=
PL_trans PL
4.923 *10 3 = 0.328 0.015
Problem1.2.5 A wire of length L0 = 2.50 m and diameter d0= 1.6 mm is stretched by tensile forces P = 1250 N. The wire is made of a copper alloy having a stress-strain relationship that may be described mathematically by the following equation: 1.24 *10 5 * 1 + 300 * units.
0 0.03
where is nondimensional and has MPa
Conduct the following tasks: (a) construct a stress-strain diagram for the material, (b) determine the elongation of the wire due to the forces P, (c) if the forces are removed, what is the permanent strain of the bar considering an average elastic modulus Eaverage=7.086x1010 Pa and (d) if the forces are applied again, what is the proportional limit? A. General Observations The initial measurements of the specimen dimensions (gage length and diameter) are:
L0 := 2.50 m d0 := 1.6 mm
The original area of the specimen is: - 20 -
d0 *1.6 2 2 A0 = 4.021 mm A0 := 4 4
The strain is limited to the value:
limit:= 0.03
B. Calculations B.1 Plot the stress-strain diagram A number of thirteen (13) points are considered nn := 13 and consequently, the step increased of the strain is calculated as :=
limit
( nn 1)
0.03 12
The points representing the strain and stress diagram are obtained: i := 0 .. nn 1
i := i
i :=
124000 i 1 + 300 i
10 Pa
The stress-strain diagram values are first tabulated and then plotted in Figure 1.2.5.
0 0 2 4 0 510 -3 0.01 0.013 0.015 0.018 0.02 0.023 0.025 0.028 0.03 0 1 2 3 4 1 2.510 -3 3 7.510 -3
0 0 1.77110 8 2.4810 8 2.86210 8 3.110 8 3.26310 8 3.38210 8 3.47210 8 3.54310 8 3.610 8
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
5 6 7 8 9
Pa
10 3.64710 8 11 3.68610 8 12 3.7210 8
- 21 -
3.72 10
4 .10
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7
3.6 .10 3.2 .10 2.8 .10
i linear
i
2.4 .10 2 .10
1.6 .10 1.2 .10 8 .10 4 .10
0 0
0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 0.027 0.03 i , linear 0.03
i
Figure 1.2.5 B.2 Calculation of the stress and strain corresponding to load P=1250 N The stress is obtained as: P := P 1250 8 P = 3.108 10 Pa 4.021 A0
The corresponding strain is calculated using the expression: P := P 1.24 10 Pa 3 10 P

11 2
3.108 *10 8 1.24 *1011 3 *10 2 * 3.108 *10 8
P = 0.01 B.3 Calculation of the remnant strain after unloading The remnant strain is obtained by constructing the unloading line which is anchored at point ( P , P ) and has a slop of E average = 7.086 * 1010 Pa . The remnant strain is obtained as: P 3.108 *10 8 3 0.01 rem = 5.724 10 rem := P 10 7.086 *10 Eaverage
- 22 -
The unloading line is constructed using two points described as:
rem linear := P
linear :=
0 P
B.4 The loading proportional limit The loading follows the same linear behavior described by the unloading and the new proportional limit is ( P , P ) , the point where the unloading begun. P := P 8 P = 3.108 10 Pa A0
1.3 Proposed Problems Problem 1.3.1 A "pencil" laser extensometer, like the mechanical lever extensometer in Prob.1.2.1, measures elongation, from which extensional strain can be computed, by multiplying the elongation. In Figure 1.3.1 the laser extensometer is being used to measure strain in a reinforced concrete column. The target is set up across the room from the test specimen so that the distance from the fulcrum, C, of the laser to the reference point O on the target is dOC = 5m. Also, the target is set so that the laser beam points directly at point O on the target when the extensometer points are exactly Lo = 150 mm apart on the specimen, and the cross section at B does not move vertically. At a particular value of (compressive) load P, the laser points upward by an angle that is indicated on the target to be = 0.0030 rad. Determine the extensional strain in the concrete column at this load value.
Figure 1.3.1 Problem 1.3.2 A tensile test is conducted on a flat-bar steel specimen having the dimensions shown in Figure 1.3.2. Using the experimental load-elongation data, shown in Table 1.3.2, collected during the test conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering stress, , versus engineering strain, ; (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of
- 23 -
this material; (c) use the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength, YS , of this material. Table 1.3.2 Tension Test Data Force (kN) 0.000 5.338 10.676 16.014 21.351 25.355 Elongation (mm) 0.000 0.020 0.041 0.061 0.081 0.102 Force (kN) 26.467 27.801 28.913 29.581 30.470 30.693 Elongation (mm) 0.127 0.152 0.191 0.254 0.317 0.381
Figure 1.3.2 Problem 1.3.3 A standard ASTM tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.3.3, with an original diameter d0=13 mm and a gage length L0 = 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation data contained in Table 1.3.3. Conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering stress, , versus engineering strain, ; (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of this material; (c) use the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength, YS , of this material. Table 1.3.3 Tension Test Data Force (kN) 0.000 8.452 16.903 25.355 33.806 40.034 Elongation (mm) 0.000 0.051 0.102 0.152 0.203 0.254 Force (kN) 42.258 44.482 46.262 47.374 48.930 49.153 Elongation (mm) 0.305 0.368 0.457 0.610 0.762 0.914
- 24 -
Figure 1.3.3 Problem 1.3.4 The tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.3.3, with an initial diameter d0=13 mm and a gage length L0 = 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation given in Table 1.3.4 Conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering stress, , versus engineering strain, , (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of this material, (c) use the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength, YS , of this material. Table 1.3.4 Test Data Force (kN) 0.0 9.3 14.9 17.7 22.4 25.2 26.6 Problem 1.3.5 A specimen of a methacrylate plastic shown in Figure 1.3.5 is tested in tension at room temperature, producing the stress-strain data listed in the accompanying Table 1.3.5. Plot the stress-strain curve and determine the proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, the yield stress at 0.2% offset and establish if the material is brittle or ductile. Elongation (mm) 0.000 0.050 0.200 0.325 0.675 1.000 1.330 P(kN) 27.5 28.4 28.6 28.9 28.4 27.50 26.10 L (mm) 1.68 2.0 2.33 2.68 3.00 3.33 3.68
Figure 1.3.5
- 25 -
Table 1.3.5 Test Data Stress (MPa) 0.0 8.0 17.5 25.6 31.1 39.8 Problem 1.3.6 The data shown in the accompanying Table 1.3.6 were obtained from a tensile test of high-strength steel. The test specimen had a diameter of 13 mm and a gage length of 50 mm as shown in Figure 1.3.6. At fracture, the elongation between the gage marks was 3.0 mm and the minimum diameter was 10.7 mm. Plot the conventional stressstrain curve for the steel. Determine the following: (a) the proportional limit, (b) modulus of elasticity, (c) yield stress at 0.1% offset, (d) ultimate stress, (e) percent elongation, and (f) percent reduction in area. Strain 0.000 0.0032 0.0073 0.0111 0.0129 0.0163 Stress (MPa) 44.0 48.2 53.9 58.1 62.0 62.1 Strain 0.0184 0.0209 0.0260 0.0331 0.0429 fracture
Figure 1.3.6 Table 1.3.6 Test Data Force (kN) 0.000 4.448 8.896 26.689 44.482 53.379 57.382 59.606 60.496 Elongation (mm) 0.00000 0.00508 0.01500 0.04800 0.08400 0.09900 0.10900 0.11900 0.13700 Force (kN) 61.385 62.275 64.054 67.613 74.730 81.847 88.964 99.640 100.530 Elongation (mm) 0.16000 0.22900 0.25900 0.33000 0.58400 0.85300 1.28800 2.81400 fracture
- 26 -
Problem 1.3.7 A tensile test is performed on an aluminum specimen that is 13 mm in diameter using a gage length of 50 mm, as shown in Fig. 1.3.7. When the load is increased by an amount P = 8 kN, the distance between gage marks increases by an amount L = 0.0430 mm. Calculate: (a) the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, for this specimen,
(b) If the proportional limit stress for this specimen is PL= 280 MPa, what is the distance between gage marks at this value of stress? Figure 1.3.7 Problem 1.3.8 A short brass cylinder ( d 0 = 15 mm , L0 = 25.5mm) is compressed between two perfectly smooth, rigid plates by an axial force P = 22.73 kN. (a) If the measured shortening of the cylinder, due to this force is 0.02667 mm, what is the brass specimen modulus of elasticity E? (b) If the increase in diameter due to the load P is 0.00533 mm, what is the value of Poisson's ratio ?
Figure 1.3.8 Problem 1.3.9 A tensile force of 500 kN is applied to a uniform segment of a titanium-alloy bar. The cross section is a 50 mm x 50 mm square, and the length of the segment being tested is 200 mm. Using titanium-alloy data from Appendix 1, determine: (a) the change in the cross-sectional dimension of the bar, and (b) the change in volume of the 200 mm segment being tested.
- 27 -
Problem 1.3.10 A cylindrical rod with an initial diameter of 8 mm is made of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. When a tensile force P is applied to the rod, its diameter decreases by 0.0101 mm. Using the appropriate aluminum-alloy data from Appendix 1, determine (a) the magnitude of the load P, and (b) the elongation over a 200 mm length of the rod. Problem 1.3.11 Under a compressive load of P = 110 kN, the length of the concrete cylinder in Figure 1.3.11 is reduced from 305 mm to 304.924 mm, and the diameter is increased from 150 mm to 150.008 mm. Determine the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, and the value of Poisson's ratio, . Assume linearly elastic deformation.
Figure 1.3.11 Problem 1.3.12 The cylindrical rod in Figure 1.3.12 is made of annealed (soft) copper with modulus of elasticity E = 1.1718 10 8 kN/m 2 and Poisson's ratio = 0.33, and it has an initial diameter, d0, of 51 mm. For compressive loads less than a "critical load" Pcr, a ring with inside diameter d = 51.005 mm is free to slide along the cylindrical rod. What is the value of the critical load Pcr?
Figure 1.3.12 Problem 1.3.13 A steel pipe column of length L0 = 3.65 m, outer diameter d0 = 102 mm, and wall thickness t0 = 13 mm is subjected to an axial compressive load P = 570 kN as shown - 28 -
in Figure 1.3.13. If the steel has a modulus of elasticity E = 100 GPa and Poisson's ratio = 0.30, determine: (a) the change, L, in the length of the column, and (b) the change, t in the wall thickness.
Figure 1.3.13 Problem 1.3.14 A rectangular aluminum bar (w0 = 25 mm; t0, = 13 mm) is subjected to a tensile load P by pins at A and B (Figure 1.3.14). Strain gages measure the following strains in the longitudinal, x, and transversal, y, directions: x = 566 , and y = -187 . (a) What is the value of Poisson's ratio for this specimen? (b) If the load P that produces these values of x and y P = 27.5 kN, what is the modulus of elasticity, E, for this specimen? (c) What is the change in volume, V, of a segment of bar that is initially 50 mm long?
Figure 1.3.14 Problem 1.3.15 Three different materials, designated A, B, and C, are tested in tension using test specimens having diameters of 12 mm and gage lengths of 50 mm. At failure, the distances between the gage marks are found to be 54.5, 63.2, and 69.4 mm, respectively. Also, at the failure cross sections the diameters are found to be 11.46, 9.48, and 6.06 mm, respectively. Determine the percent elongation and percent - 29 -
reduction in area of each specimen, and then, using your own judgment, classify each material as brittle or ductile.
Figure 1.3.15 Problem 1.3.16 A bar made of structural steel having the stress-strain diagram shown in Figure 1.3.16 has a length of 1.525 m. The yield stress of the steel is 280 MPa and the slope of the initial linear part of the stress-strain curve, modulus of elasticity, is 210 GPa. The bar is loaded axially until it elongates 5.334 mm, and then the load is removed. How does the final length of the bar compare with its original length?
Figure 1.3.16 Problem 1.3.17 A bar of length 0.8 m is made of a structural steel having the stress-strain diagram shown in the Figure 1.3.17. The yield stress of the steel is 250 MPa and the slope of the initial linear part of the stress-strain curve (modulus of elasticity) is 200 GPa. The bar is loaded axially until it elongates 2.5 mm, and then the load is removed. How does the final length of the bar compare with its original length?
- 30 -
Figure 1.3.17 Problem 1.3.18 An aluminum bar has length L = 40.5 cm and diameter d = 18 mm. The stress-strain curve for the aluminum alloy is shown in Figure 1.3.18. The initial straight-line part of the curve has a slope, the modulus of elasticity, of 0.6893 10 8 kN/m 2 . The bar is loaded by a tensile force P = 57 kN and then unloaded. (a) What is the permanent set of the bar? (b) If the bar is reloaded, what is the proportional limit?
Figure 1.3.18 Problem 1.3.19 A circular bar of magnesium alloy is 750 mm long. The stress-strain diagram for the material is shown in the Figure 1.3.19. The bar is loaded in tension to an elongation of 4.5 mm, and then the load is removed. (a) What is the permanent set of the bar? (b) If the bar is reloaded, what is the proportional limit?
- 31 -
Figure 1.3.19 Problem 1.3.20 A round bar of length L = 2.5 m and diameter d = 10 mm is stretched by tensile a force P = 60 kN. The bar is made of an aluminum alloy for which the stress-strain relationship may be described mathematically by the following equation:
70000
* [1 +
3 * 9 ] 22 5.338 * 10
where has units of megapascals (MPa) and is nondimensional. Conduct the following calculations: (a) construct a stress-strain diagram for the material, (b) determine the elongation of the bar due to the force P, (c) if the forces are removed, what is the permanent strain of the bar and (d) if the forces are applied again, what is the proportional limit? Problem 1.3.21 A high-strength steel bar used in a large crane has diameter d = 57 mm as shown in Figure 1.3.21 is compressed by axial forces. The steel has modulus of elasticity E = 1.999 10 8 kN/m 2 and Poisson's ratio = 0.30. Because of clearance requirements, the diameter of the bar is limited to 57.025 mm. What is the largest compressive load Pmax that is permitted?
Figure 1.3.21
- 32 -
Problem 1.3.22 The round bar, shown in Figure 1.3.22 has the initial diameter of 12 mm diameter and is made of aluminum alloy 6061-T6. When the bar is stretched by axial force P, its diameter decreases by 0.012 mm. Find the magnitude of the load P. (Obtain the material properties from Appendix 1).
Figure 1.3.22 Problem 1.3.23 A nylon bar having diameter d1 = 70 mm is placed inside a steel tube having inner diameter d2, =70.25 mm as shown in Figure 1.3.23. The nylon cylinder is then compressed by an axial force P. At what value of the force P will the space between the nylon bar and the steel tube be closed, assuming that the nylon has the modulus of elasticity E = 3.102 10 6 kN/m 2 and the Poissons ratio = 0.4?
Figure 1.3.23 Problem 1.3.24 A prismatic bar of circular cross section is loaded by a tensile force P as shown in Figure 1.3.24. The bar has an initial length L0 = 3.0 m and diameter d0 = 30 mm. The bar is made of aluminum alloy 2014-T6 with modulus of elasticity E = 73 GPa and Poisson's ratio = 0.333. (a) If the bar elongates by 7.0 mm, what is the decrease in diameter d0? (b)What is the magnitude of the load P?
- 33 -
Figure 1.3.24 Problem 1.3.25 A bar of monel metal with an initial length L0 = 0.38 m and a diameter d 0 = 8 mm is loaded axially by a tensile force P = 12 kN. Using the data in Appendix 1.1, determine the increase in length of the bar and the percent decrease in its cross-sectional area. Problem 1.3.26 A high-strength steel wire with an initial diameter of d0= 3 mm stretches 37.1 mm when a 15-meter length of it is stretched by a force of 3.5 kN. (a) What is the modulus of elasticity, E, of the steel? (b) If the diameter of the wire decreases by 0.0022 mm, what is Poisson's ratio? Problem 1.3.27 A hollow bronze cylinder, shown in Figure 1.3.27, is compressed by a force P. The cylinder has inner diameter d1 = 47 mm, outer diameter d2 = 55 mm, and modulus of elasticity E = 110320 Mpa. When the force P increases from zero to 35 kN, the outer diameter of the cylinder increases by 0.0432 mm. Determine: (a) the increase in the inner diameter, (b) wall thickness and (c) the Poisson's ratio for the bronze.
Figure 1.3.27
- 34 -
Problem 1.3.28 A plate of length L, width b, and thickness t is subjected to a uniform tensile stress applied at its ends as shown in Figure 1.3.28. The material has a modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's ratio . Before the stress is applied, the slope of the diagonal line OA is b/L. What is: (a) the slope when the stress is acting; (b) the increase in area of the front face of the plate; (c) the decrease in cross-sectional area?
Figure 1.3.28 Problem 1.3.29 An axially loaded member having before loading a squared cross-section area of 3cm x 3cm and a length of 180 cm becomes 0.001 cm wider and 0.07 cm shorter after loading. Determine the Poissons ratio. Problem 1.3.30 At the proportional limit, the 205 mm gage length of a 12.5 mm diameter alloy bar has elongated 0.3 mm and the diameter has been reduced by 0.0064 mm. The total axial load carried was 22 KN. Determine the following properties of this material: (a) the modulus of elasticity; (b) the Poisson's ratio and (c) the proportional limit. Problem 1.3.31 A 455 kN axial load is slowly applied to a 2.50 m long rectangular bar. The bar crosssection is 2.5 cm wide and 10.5 cm deep. When loaded, the 10.5 cm side of the crosssection measures 10.445 cm and the length has increased by 0.2286 cm. Determine Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus for the material. Problem 1.3.32 In a 0.65 cm diameter steel tie rod 3.2 m long, there is an axial tensile stress of 1.38 N/m2. Poisson's ratio for this steel is 0.25. How much has the rod elongated, and how much has its diameter been altered? Problem 1.3.33 A 70 mm by 150 mm rectangular alloy bar elongates 0.003 cm. The member has an original length of 1.55 m and is loaded with an axial load of 44.5 kN. Considering that
- 35 -
the proportional limit of the material is 2.4*105 kN/m2, calculate the following: (a) the axial stress in the bar, (b) the modulus of elasticity of this material, (c) if Poisson's ratio for the material is 0.25 what will be the total change in each lateral dimension? Problem 1.3.34 A steel rod characterized by a 38 mm diameter solid circular cross-section and a length of 6 m elongates 12 mm under an axial load of 235 kN. The rod diameter decreased 0.025 mm during the loading. Determine the following properties of the material: (a) the Poisson's ratio, (b) the modulus of elasticity and (c) the modulus of rigidity. Problem 1.3.35 A steel and an aluminum bar are coupled together end to end and loaded axially at the extreme ends. Both bars are 50 mm in diameter; the steel bar is 1.55 m long, and the aluminum bar is 1.25 m long. When the load is applied, it is found that the steel bar elongates 0.102 mm in a gage length of 205 mm. Poisson's ratio for this steel is 1/4, and the modulus of elasticity of the aluminum is 69 GPa. Determine: (a) the load, (b) the total change in length measured between the bar ends and (c) the change in the diameter of the bar.
- 36 -
CHAPTER 2 Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam Cross-Section

2.1. Theoretical Background The geometrical characteristics of the beam cross-section are as follows: Area (Figure 2.1.1)
A = dA
A
(2.1)
Figure 2.1.1 First Moments or Static Moments (Figure 2.1.1)

S y = z dA
A
(2.2) (2.3)
S z = y dA
A
Position of the Centroid located at point C ( y C , z C ) (Figure 2.1.2)
S yC = z = A Sy A
y dA
A
(2.4)
zC =
z dA
A
(2.5)
Figure 2.1.2
Second Moments or Moments of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3) - 40 -
I y = z 2 dA
A
(2.6) (2.7)
I z = y 2 dA
A
Figure 2.1.3 Polar Moment of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3)

I po = 2 dA = ( y 2 + z 2 ) dA =
A A
(2.8)
= Iz + Iy
Product of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3)

I yz = y z dA
A
(2.9)
Parallel-Axis Theorems for Moment of Inertia (Figure 2.1.4)

2 I y = z C A + I yC
2 I z = y C A + I zC 2 I = C A + I C
(2.10) (2.11) (2.12)
Figure 2.1.4 Moment of Inertia about Inclined Axes (see Figure 2.1.5) I y' = Iy + Iz 2 Iy + Iz 2 + Iy Iz 2 Iy Iz 2 cos(2 ) I yz sin( 2 ) (2.13) I z' = cos(2 ) + I yz sin( 2 ) (2.14)
Figure 2.1.5
- 41 -
I y'z' =
Iy Iz 2
sin( 2 ) + I yz cos(2 * ) (2.15)
Principal Moments of Inertia

I p1 = I max = Iy + Iz 2 + (I y I z ) 2 4 + I yz
2
(2.16)
I p 2 = I min = Iy + Iz 2 (I y I z ) 2 4 + I yz
2
(2.17) Note: For the calculation of the principal moments of inertia related to centroidal I ,I ,I axes the moments of inertia y z yz contained in equations (2.16), (2.17) should be replaced by I yC , I zC , I yzC , respectively.
Principal Directions of Inertia
The value of the angle corresponding to the principal directions is obtained using the equation:
tan(2 0 ) = 2 I yz I y Iz
(2.18)
The two solutions of equation (2.18), angles 01 and 02 , are related as:
02 = 01 +
2 (2.19)
The angle, 01 or 02 , corresponding to the maximum moment of inertia the angle which verifies the relation (2.20): tan 0 <0 I yz
I p1 = I max
, is
(2.20)
Maximum Product Moment of Inertia
The maximum value of the product of inertia is obtained for an angle of rotation measured in the counter-clockwise direction from the position of the principal 4 axes and has the following expression:
- 42 -
I y ' z ' max =
I p1 I p 2 2
(I y I z ) 2 4
2 + I yz
(2.21) The corresponding moments of inertia are:
I y' = I z' =
I p1 + I p 2
2
Iy + Iz
2 (2.22)
Mohrs Circle Representation of the Moments of Inertia (Figure 2.1.6)
Figure 2.1.6 Practically the Mohrs circle is constructed using the following steps: (a) The coordinates system O is drawn as shown in Figure 2.1.6. The horizontal axis O represents the moments of inertia, while the vertical axis O represents the product of inertia (note that the positive axis is drawn upwards). The drawing should be done roughly to scale. The representation considers that the following conditions are met: I y > I z , I y > 0 , I z > 0 and
I yz > 0 ; (b) Using the calculated values of the moments of inertia I y and I z and the product of inertia I yz two points noted as Y and Z are placed on the drawing. The line
YZ intersects the horizontal axis in point C which represents the center of the Mohrs circle;
(c) The distance CY is the radius of the circle. Using the radius CY and the position of the center C the Mohrs circle is constructed. The intersection points, P1 and P2 , between the circle and the horizontal axis represent the maximum and the minimum moments of inertia;
- 43 -
(d) The absolute value of the tan(2 0 ) can be calculated from the graph; (e) The angle of the principal direction 1 is the angle measured in the counterclockwise direction between lines CY and CP1. To obtain the position of the two principal directions corresponding to the cross-section system Oyz an additional point Z, the reflection of the point Z in reference to axis , has to be constructed. The lines ZP1 and ZP2 represent the principal direction 1 (associated with the maximum moment of inertia) and 2 (associated with the minimum moment of inertia), respectively. The two directions can then be transcribed on the cross-section sketch. Discussion regarding the correlation between the calculated principal directions and the Mohrs circle representation
Four cases can be identified. They are as follows: (a) if I y > I z and I yz > 0 then: tan(2 0 ) < 0 90 o 2 0 180 o is located in the second quadrant 45 o 01 90 o is located in first quadrant and tan( 01 ) > 0 135o 02 180 o is located in second quadrant and tan( 02 ) < 0 conclusion: the angle 02 verifies the relation (2.20) and represents the angle of the principal direction. The graphical representation of the principal directions in both planes, Oyz and O , is shown in Figure 2.1.7.
z + 90 135 45 y+ 0 Dir 1 125 Dir 2 z - 270 (a) 315 -I Dir 2 I 0P Z'( I , I ) C I Z( I ,- I ) 2
= 0 Y( I ,I
) Dir 1
y180
I P
(b)
Figure 2.1.7 (b) if I y > I z and I yz < 0 then: tan(2 0 ) > 0 0 o 2 0 90 o is located in the first quadrant
- 44 -
0 o 01 45o is located in first quadrant and tan( 01 ) > 0 90 o 02 135o is located in second quadrant and tan( 02 ) < 0 conclusion: the angle 01 verifies the relation (2.20) and represents the angle of the principal direction. The graphical representation of the principal directions in both planes, Oyz and O , is shown in Figure 2.1.8.
Dir 2 z + 90 135 Dir 2 45 Dir 1 y180 y+ 0 -I 125 z - 270 (a) 315 (b) I 0 Z(I ,- I ) C 2 P I Z'( I , I ) I P Y( I ,I ) Dir 1
Figure 2.1.8 (c) if I y < I z and I yz > 0 then: tan(2 0 ) > 0 0 o 2 0 90 o is located in the second quadrant 0 o 01 45o is located in first quadrant and tan( 01 ) > 0 90 o 02 135o is located in second quadrant and tan( 02 ) < 0 conclusion: the angle 02 verifies the relation (2.20) and represents the angle of the principal direction. The graphical representation of the principal directions in both planes, Oyz and O , is shown in Figure 2.1.9.
Dir 1 z + 90 135
45 Dir 2 y+ 0
I 0P Dir 2 -I
Y( I ,I
) C 2 I
Z'(I , I P
y180
I Z( I ,-I )
125 z - 270 (a)
315 (b)
Dir 1
Figure 2.1.9 - 45 -
(d) if I y < I z and I yz < 0 then: tan(2 0 ) < 0 90 o 2 0 180 o is located in the second quadrant 45 o 01 90 o is located in first quadrant and tan( 01 ) > 0 135o 02 180 o is located in second quadrant than tan( 02 ) < 0 conclusion: the angle 01 verifies the relation (2.20) and represents the angle of the principal direction. The graphical representation of the principal directions in both planes, Oyz and O , is shown in Figure 2.1.10.
z + 90 Dir 1 135 45 y+ 0 Dir 2 125 z - 270 (a) 315 I Dir 2 0 P -I
0 = Y( I ,I )
Dir 1 Z( I ,- I I C 2 I P Z'( I , I ) )
y180
(b)
Figure 2.1.10 Radii of Gyration
The radii of gyration relative to the original coordinate system 0 yz are calculated as:
ry = Iy A
Iz A
(2.23)
rz =
(2.24)
For the case of the principal moments of inertia, the corresponding radii of gyration are:
rp1 = I p1 A
(2.25)
rp 2 =
I p2 A
(2.26)
- 46 -
Mathematical Observations Concerning the Evaluation of the Surface Integrals
The equations (2.1) through (2.9) require, for the practical cases, the evaluation of the surface integral. These equations can be replaced by the following general equation:
I = f ( y, z ) dA
A
(2.27)
If the function f ( y, z ) is continuous on the rectangular domain D in plane Oyz , based on Fubinis theorem the surface integral is expressed as a double integral:
I = f ( y, z ) * dy * dz
D
(2.28)
The domain D , as shown in Figure 2.1.11, is bounded above and below by the curves y = f1 ( x) and y = f 2 ( x) , respectively, and by x = a to the left and x = b to the right.
y dx
y= f1(x)
In practice, the double integral is calculated using the method of iterated integrals as:
I = (
a b f2 ( x)
dy 0 a
Figure 2.1.11
y= f2(x) b
f1 ( x )
f ( x, y) * dy) * dx
(2.29)
In general the domain D is not of rectangular shape and the double integral (2.28) is easier to be evaluated using the natural coordinate system Ouv of the curves describing the boundary. Considering the transformation:
x = (u, v) z = (u, v)
the double integral can be expressed as:
I = f ( (u, v), (u, v)) *
T
(2.30) (2.31)
D( y, z ) * du * dv D(u, v)
(2.31)
where
D( y, z ) is the Jacobian of the transformation. D(u , v)
- 47 -
y D( y, z ) u = D(u , v) z u
y v = y * z y * z z u v v u v
(2.32)
and T is the domain mapped from D by the transformations (2.30) and (2.31). The same method of iterated integrals is used to evaluate the double integral (2.31). The advantage of using the variables pertinent to the natural coordinate system is that the integral separates into two independent integral with constant limits, facilitating the integration process. 2.2. Solved Problems 2.2.1 Cross-Sections with Analytical Described Boundary The geometrical characteristics of the cross-section are obtained by direct integration of the equations (2.1) through (2.26). Problem 2.2.1.1 Rectangular cross-section (Figure 2.2.1) z z' dy y
dA=dy.dz h 2 h= 10 m dz C z y
h 2 0 y' b b 2 2 b= 4 m
Figure 2.2.1 Rectangular Cross-Section A. General Observations A.1 A.2 The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . The rectangle is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . Consequently, the axes of the centroidal coordinate system identify with the principal directions. This conclusion is verified.
- 48 -
A.3
For numerical application of the formulae the following global dimensions describing the rectangular shape are used:
b = 4m h = 10 m
B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 b
calculation of the cross-sectional area

h
2 A( b , h) b
2
2 1 dy dz b h h
2
, A( b , h) substitute b B.2 Step 2 -
4 m, h
10 m
40 m2
calculation of the cross-sectional static moments
Note: The static moments are calculated in reference to the centroidal coordinate system.
h b b h
2 Szc( b , h) h
2
2 y dy dz 0 b
2
2 Syc( b , h) b
2
2 z dz dy 0 h
2
B.3 Step 3 -
calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia

b h
2 Iyc ( b , h) b
2
2 1 2 3 z dz dy bh 12 h
2
Iyc ( b , h) substitute b ,
b h
4 m, h
10 m
1000 3
m4 float, 4 333.3 m4
2 Izc( b , h) b
2
2 1 2 3 y d z dy b h 12 h
2
Izc( b , h) substitute b ,
b h
4 m, h
10 m
160 3
m4 float, 4 53.33 m4
Iyzc ( b , h) b
2 2
2 y z dz dy 0 h
2
- 49 -
B.4 Step 4 -
calculation of the cross-sectional radii of gyration

Iyc ( b , h) A( b , h) 3 (h 1 ) 2 simplify
5 3
ry ( b , h)
1 6
assume, b > 0 , h > 0

10 m
1 6
3h
ry ( b , h) substitute b , Izc( b , h) A( b , h) 3 (b
4 m, h
3 m float, 4 2.887 m
rz( b , h)
1 6
1 2 2 )
simplify
2 3
assume, b > 0 , h > 0

10 m
1 6
3b
rz( b , h) substitute b ,
4 m, h
3 m float, 4 1.155 m
Note: For a rectangular cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the centroidal coordinate system is zero I yzc = 0 and consequently, the centroidal coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia. If the moments of inertia about axes of a cartesian coordinate system Oyz parallel with the centroidal coordinate system axes and passing through the lower corner of the rectangle are required, the parallel-axis theorem for moments of inertia must be employed in the calculation:
1 h Iy ( b , h) := Iyc ( b , h) + A( b , h) b h3 3 2
2
Iy ( b , h) substitute b ,
2
4 m, h
10 m
4000 3
m4 float, 4 1333. m4
1 b Iz( b , h) := Izc( b , h) + A( b , h) b3 h 3 2
Iz( b , h) substitute b ,
4 m, h
10 m
640 3
m4 float, 4 213.3 m4
Iyz ( b , h) := Iyzc ( b , h) + A( b , h)
h b 1 b2 h2
2 2 4
Iyz ( b , h) substitute b , Problem 2.2.1.2 Tubular Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.2) A. General Observations A.1 A.2
4 m, h
10 m
400 m4
The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . The circle is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . Consequently, the axes of the centroidal coordinate system identify with the principal directions. This conclusion is verified.
- 50 -
A.3
For numerical application:

Ra = 2 m Rb = 5 m
z y d C d R a= m z
2
dA= d d y
= Rb
Figure 2.2.2 Tubular Cross-Section B. Calculations The parametric representation of a circle is: y( , ) cos ( ) z( , ) sin( )
The Jacobian of the transformation is calculated as:
D( , )
B.1 Step 1 -
d d
simplifytrig , d ( d ( z , ) z , ) d d
y( , )
d d
y( , )
A( , ) Ra 0
Rb
D( , ) d d collect, Rb2 Ra2 A( , ) substitute Ra , float, 4

2 m , Rb 5m
65.98 m2
B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia.

Iyc ( , ) Ra 0
Rb
2
z( , ) D( , ) d d
2
collect, 1 4 4 Rb Ra 4 simplify
- 51 -
Iyc ( , ) Izc( , ) R 0
a
substitute Ra , float, 4
2 m , Rb
5m
478.5 m4
Rb
y( , ) D( , ) d d
2
collect, 1 Rb 4 Ra4 4 simplify
Izc( , )
2 m , Rb
5m
478.5 m4
Iyzc ( , ) Ra 0 Ic ( , ) Ra 0
Rb
Rb
y( , ) z( , ) D( , ) d d D( , ) d d
2
collect, 0 simplify
collect, 1 Rb 4 Ra4 2 simplify
I c ( , ) B.3 Step 3 ryc ( , )
2 m , Rb
5m
956.7 m4
calculation of the cross-sectional radii of gyration Iyc ( , ) A( , ) simplify

1
Ra2 + Rb2 assume, Ra 0 , Rb > 0 2 substitute Ra , ryc ( , ) assume, m > 0 simplify float, 4
2 m , Rb
1 2
5m
2.693 m
rzc( , )
Izc( , ) A( , )
simplify
assume, Ra 0 , Rb > 0 rzc( , )
1 2
Ra2 + Rb2
1 2
5m
substitute ( Ra , simplify assume, m > 0
2 m , Rb
)
2.693 m
float, 4 Note: For a circular cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the centroidal coordinate system is zero I yzc = 0 and consequently, the centroidal coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia. This conclusion is misleading. In fact, one can easily observe that the 0 tan(2 0 ) = and consequently, the principal directions are undetermined. It 0 is concluded that any pair of orthogonal diameters can identify themselves with the principal directions.
- 52 -
The geometrical characteristics of the solid circular cross-section, where Ra = 0 , are calculated in a similar manner by following the steps described above. The only difference is the changing of the limits corresponding to variable appearing in the double integrals or by directly replacing them in above calculated expressions. Consequently, the following geometrical characteristics are obtained: A( , ) substitute Ra , float, 4 substitute Ra , float, 4 substitute Ra , float, 4 substitute Ra , float, 4 substitute R a , r yc ( , ) simplify assume, m > 0 float, 4 substitute R a , r zc( , ) assume, m > 0 simplify float, 4 Problem 2.2.1.3 Elliptical Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.3)
z b = 10 m
0 m, R b 5m 0 m, R b 0 m , Rb 0 m , Rb 0 m , Rb 0 m , Rb 5m
78.55 m2
I c ( , )
5m
981.9 m4
Iyc ( , )
5m
491.1 m4
Izc( , )
5m
491.1 m4
5m
2.500 m
2.500 m
b = 10 m a=5m
a=5m
Figure 2.2.3 - 53 -
A. General Observations A.1 A.2 The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . The ellipse is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the centroidal coordinate system Cyz . Consequently, the axes of the centroidal coordinate system identify with the principal directions. This conclusion is verified. For numerical application:
a = 5m b = 10 m
A.3
B. Calculations The parametric representation of an ellipse is: y( , ) a cos ( ) assume, a > 0 a cos ( ) z( , ) b sin( ) assume, b > 0 b sin( ) The Jacobian of the transformation is calculated as:
D( , )
B.1 Step 1 1
d d
simplifytrig a b , d ( d ( z , ) z , ) d d
2
y( , )
d d
y( , )
A( , ) 0 0
D( , ) d d collect, a b
A( , ) B.2 Step 2 1
substitute a , float, 4
5 m, b
10 m
157.1 m2
calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia.

2
Iy( , ) 0 0
z( , ) D( , ) d d
2
collect, 1 b3 a 4 simplify
5 m, b 10 m
Iy( , )
1 2
3928. m4
Iz( , ) 0 0
y( , ) D( , ) d d
2
collect, 1 a3 b 4 simplify
- 54 -
Iz( , ) Iyz( , ) 0 0 I ( , ) 0 0
1 1 2
5 m, b
10 m
981.9 m4
y( , ) z( , ) D( , ) d d
collect, 0 simplify collect, 1 a b ( a2 + b2) 4 simplify

10 m
( y( , )
+ z( , )
) D( , ) d d
I ( , ) B.3 Step 3 ry( , )
5 m, b
4911. m4
calculation of the cross-sectional radii of gyration Iy( , ) A( , ) simplify

1 2
assume, a > 0 , b > 0
b
5 m, b 10 m
ry( , )
substitute a , float, 2 assume, m > 0
5. m
rz( , )
Iz( , ) A( , )
simplify
assume, a > 0 , b > 0
1 2
a
5 m, b 10 m
rz( , )
2.5 m
Note: For an elliptical cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the centroidal coordinate system is zero I yz = 0 and consequently, the centroidal coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia.
z z y
b = 10 m
C 0 a=5m
z y
Figure 2.2.4
- 55 -
The geometrical characteristics of a quarter elliptical cross-sections, shown in Figure 2.2.4, are calculated in a similar manner with these corresponding to a solid elliptical cross-section. The only notable difference is the limits corresponding to variable appearing in the double integrals. The following geometrical characteristics are obtained: 2 1 Aq ( , ) D( , ) d d collect, a b 0 0 4 Aq ( , )
1 1
5 m, b
10 m
39.28 m2
2 ( , ) y( , ) D( , ) d d Sz_q 0 0
Sz_q( , )
1
5 m, b 10 m
83.33 m
2 Sy_q( , ) z( , ) D( , ) d d 0 0 Sy_q( , )
yc_q ( , ) Sz_q( , ) Aq ( , )
4 3
5 m, b 10 m
166.7 m3
yc_q ( , ) Sy_q( , ) 4 b zc_q ( , ) 3 Aq ( , ) zc_q ( , )

1
5 m, b
10 m
2.122 m
5 m, b
10 m
4.243 m
Iy_q( , )
2 2 z( , ) D( , ) d d 0 0 Iy_q( , )
1
5 m, b 10 m
981.9 m4
2 2 Iz_q( , ) y( , ) D( , ) d d 0 0
- 56 -
Iz_q( , )
5 m, b
10 m
245.5 m4
Iyc_q( , )
2 Iy_q( , ) Aq ( , ) zc_q ( , ) simplify
1 144
ab
(9
64
Iyc_q( , )
2
5 m, b
10 m
274.6 m4
2
Izc_q( , ) Iz_q( , ) Aq ( , ) yc_q ( , ) simplify a 144

1
(9 b
64
Izc_q( , )
ryc_q( , ) Iyc_q( , ) A( , ) simplify
5 m, b
10 m
68.66 m4
assume, a > 0 , b > 0
( 12 )
9 64
10 m
1 2
ryc_q( , )
Izc_q( , ) A( , ) simplify
5 m, b
1.3 m
1 2
rzc_q( , )
9 64 assume, a > 0 , b > 0 ( 12 ) substitute a 5 m , b 10 m ,
rzc_q( , )
float, 2 assume, m > 0
.61 m
2.2.2. Composite Cross-Sections Problem 2.2.2.1 L Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.5.a) A. General Observations A1. The "L" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.5.a, is subdivided into two rectangular areas called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure 2.2.5.b). The geometrical characteristics of the two rectangular areas are calculated using the formulae previously obtained. The decomposition of the original area into those two particular rectangular areas and the usage of the coordinate system pictured are arbitrary and any other alternative can be employed.
nshapes := 2 A2.
number of rectangular areas considered
The Cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system.
- 57 -
z y z y y
Figure 2.2.5 A.3. For numerical application:

a := 200 mm b := 100 mm tv := 20 mm th := 20 mm
B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 collecting data pertinent to individual rectangular areas:
Data pertinent to area SHAPE1
Note: The local coordinate system 01y1z1 is used. az := a th 200 20 az = 180 mm ay := tv ay = 20 mm 1 1 1 1

180 + 20 z0 = 110 mm + th z0 := 2 1 2 1 ay 20 1 y0 = 10 mm y0 := 2 2 1 1
dimensions centroid O1
az 1
A1 := az ay = 180 * 20 A1 = 3.6 10 mm 1 1 Iy 1
area
( az ) ay :=
3 1
Iz := 1
az ay 1 1
12
( )
4
12
180 3 * 20 Iy = 9.72 106 mm4 12 1 180 * 20 3 Iz = 1.2 105 mm4 12 1
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 1
product of inertia
- 58 -
Note: The local coordinate system 02y2z2 is used. az := th az = 20 mm 2 2 az 2 ay := b ay = 100 mm 2 2 ay 2

2
dimensions
20 z0 = 10 mm z0 := 2 2 2 2
100 y0 = 50 mm centroid O2 y0 := 2 2 2 2
3
A2 := az ay 20 *100 A2 = 2 10 mm 2 2 Iy 2
area
( az ) ay :=
3 2
Iz := 2
az ay 2 2
12
( )
4
12
20 3 * 100 Iy = 6.667 104 mm4 12 2 20 *100 3 Iz = 1.667 106 mm4 12 2
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 2 B.2 Step 2 -
product of inertia calculation of the cross-section area
n shapes
Atotal :=
3 2 An 3600 + 2000 Atotal = 5.6 10 mm
total area
=1 calculation of the cross-section centroid C
B.3 Step 3 -
Note: The global coordinate system 0y0z0 is used.

nshapes
Sz :=
n=1 nshapes
An y0
(3600 * 10 ) + ( 2000 * 50 ) Sz = 1.36 10 mm n

5
Sy :=
n=1
(An z0n) (3600 *110) + (2000 *10) Sy = 4.16 10 mm
1.36 * 10 5 yc = 24.286 mm yc := 5.6 *10 3 Atotal Sy 3.44 * 10 5 zc = 74.286 mm zc := 5.6 * 10 3 Atotal
Sz
position of the centroid C
B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia, polar moment and product of inertia
- 59 -
Note: The centroidal coordinate system Cyczc is used.

n shapes
Iyc :=
=1
Iy + An z0 zc 2 n n
[9.72 * 10 6 + 3.6 * 10 3 * (110 74.286) 2 ] + + [6.667 * 10 4 + 2 * 10 3 * (10 74.286) 2 ]
Iyc = 2.264 10 mm
n shapes
Izc :=
=1
Iz + An y0 yc n n
2
[1.2 * 105 + 3.6 * 103 * (10 24.286) 2 ] + + [1.667 * 104 + 2 * 103 * (50 24.286) 2 ]
Izc = 3.844 10 mm
6 4
Ipolar := Iyc + Izc 2.264 * 10 7 + 3.844 * 10 6 Ipolar = 2.649 10 mm

n shapes
Iyzc :=
=1 [3.6 * 103 * (10 24.286) * (110 74.286)] + [2 * 103 * (50 24.286) * (10 74.286)]
n
Iyz + An y0 yc z0 zc n n n
)(
Iyzc = 5.143 10 mm B.5 Step 5 calculation of Principal Moments and Principal Directions of Inertia

Iyc + Izc
2
Ip1 :=
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 + 2

2
2.264 * 10 7 + 3.844 * 10 6 (2.264 * 10 7 3.844 * 10 6 ) 2 + + (5.142 * 10 6 ) 2 2 4 Imax := Ip1 Ip2 := Iyc + Izc
2
Imax = 2.396 10 mm
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

2
2.264 * 10 7 + 3.844 * 10 6 (2.264 * 10 7 3.844 * 10 6 ) 2 + (5.142 * 10 6 ) 2 2 4 Imin = 2.529 10 mm

6 4
Imin := Ip2 0_1 := 1

2
atan
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * (5.142 *10 6 ) ] 2 tan [ 2.264 * 10 7 3.844 * 10 6 Iyc Izc

0_1 = 14.342 deg tan(14.342 ) = 0.255 > 0
- 60 -
14.342 + 90 0_2 = 104.342 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan(104 .342 ) = 3.911 < 0
tan 0_1 tan 0_2 Iyzc
01 :=
0_1 if 0_2 if
( (
Iyzc
)<0 )<0
angle corresponding to maximum principal moment of inertia 01 = 14.342 deg
02 :=
0_1 if 01 0_2 if 01
0_2 0_1
angle corresponding to minimum principal moment of inertia 02 = 104.342 deg
z Dir 2 y z Dir 1 y y
Figure 2.2.6 B.6 Step 6 calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration
Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated: first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second involves the principal moments of inertia. ryc := rzc := Iyc Atotal 2.264 * 10 7 ryc = 63.589 mm 5.6 * 10 3
radii of gyration
Izc 3.844 *10 6 rzc = 26.199 mm 5.6 *10 3 Atotal Ip1 Atotal 2.396 * 10 7 rp1 = 65.409 mm 5.6 * 10 3
rp1 :=
- 61 -
rp2 :=
Ip2 Atotal
2.529 * 10 6 rp2 = 21.251 mm 5.6 * 10 3
B.7 Step 7 -
construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.7)
point Y ( Iyc = 2.264 107 mm4, Iyzc = 5.143 106 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 3.844 106 mm4, Iyzc = 5.143 106 mm4)
6 4 6 4 point Z ( Izc = 3.844 10 mm , Iyzc = 5.143 10 mm )
Z( I ,- I 0
) C 2 I P Y( I , I ) = 0 Dir 1
P Z'
Dir 2
Figure 2.2.7 B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.8) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Iyr := + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) i 2 2
Izr := i Iyzr := i Iyc + Izc 2 Iyc Izc 2 Iyc Izc 2 cos (2 i) + Iyzcsin(2 i)
sin(2 i) + Iyzccos (2 i)
- 62 -
3 .10
Iyr Izr
1.75 .10
i
180
i i
5 .10
0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Iyzr
6 7.5 .10
2 .10
180 i
Figure 2.2.8 Problem 2.2.2.2 C Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.9.a)
z z y z y z y y
Figure 2.2.9 A. General Observations A1. The "C" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.9.a, is subdivided into three rectangular areas called SHAPE1, SHAPE2 and SHAPE3 (Figure 2.2.9.b). The geometrical characteristics of the rectangular area are expressed using the previously obtained formulae. nshapes := 3 number of rectangular areas considered
- 63 -
A2.
The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system. For numerical application:
a := 200 mm
A3.
tv := 10 mm B. Calculations
b1 := 80 mm th1 := 10 mm
b2 := 100 mm th2 := 20 mm
B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to individual rectangular areas: Data pertinent to area SHAPE1
Note: The local coordinate system 01y1z1 is used. az := th1 az = 10 mm 1 1 ay := b1 tv ay = 70 mm 1 1 dimensions centroid 01
th1 10 200 z0 = 195 mm z0 := a 2 2 1 1 ay 70 1 + 10 y0 = 45 mm + tv y0 := 2 2 1 1 A1 := az ay 10 * 70 A1 = 700 mm 1 1 Iy 1

2
area
3 4
( az ) ay 10 * 70 I :=
3 1 1
3
Iz := 1
az ay 1 1
12
( )
4
12
12
y1 = 5.833 10 mm
moments of inertia
10 * 70 3 Iz = 2.858 105 mm4 12 1 product of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 1
Note: The local coordinate system 02y2z2 is used.
az := a az = 200 mm 2 2 az 2
ay := tv ay = 10 mm 2 2 ay 2
dimensions
200 z0 = 100 mm z0 := 2 2 2 2
10 y0 = 5 mm centroid O2 y0 := 2 2 2 2
3 2
A2 := az ay 200 *10 A2 = 2 10 mm 2 2
area
- 64 -
Iy 2
( az ) ay :=
3 2
Iz := 2
az ay 2 2
12
( )
4
12
200 3 * 10 Iy = 6.667 106 mm4 12 2 200 *10 3 Iz = 1.667 104 mm4 12 2
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 2
product of inertia
Note: The local coordinate system O3y3z3 is used.
dimensions ay := b2 tv ay = 90 mm 3 3 az ay 20 90 3 3 z0 = 10 mm y0 := + 10 y0 = 55 mm z0 := + tv 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 centroid O3 A3 := az ay 20 * 90 A3 = 1.8 10 mm 3 3 Iy 3

3 2
az := th2 az = 20 mm 3 3
area
4
( az ) ay 20 * 90 I :=
3 3 3
3
Iz := 3
az ay 3 3
12
( )
4
12
12
y3 = 6 10 mm
moments of inertia
20 * 90 3 Iz = 1.215 106 mm4 12 3 product of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 3
B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-section area

n shapes
Atotal :=
An 700 + 2 * 10 3 + 1.8 * 10 3 Atotal = 4.5 10 mm
total area
=1
B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C Note: the general coordinate system 0y0z0 is used.
nshapes
Sz :=
n=1
(Any0n) (700 * 45) + (2 *10 * 5) + (1.8 *10 * 55)

3 3
Sz = 1.405 10 mm
- 65 -
nshapes
Sy :=
n=1
(Anz0n) (700 *195) + (2 *10 *100) + (1.8 *10 *10)

3 3
Sy = 3.545 10 mm yc := Atotal Sy 3.545 * 105 zc = 78.778 mm zc := 4.5 * 103 Atotal B.4 Step 4 Sz 1.405 * 10 5 yc = 31.222 mm 4.5 *10 3
centroid C
calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia, polar moment and product of inertia

n shapes
Iyc :=
=1
Iy + An z0 zc 2 n n
[5.833 * 10 3 + 700 * (195 78.778) 2 ] + + [6.667 * 10 6 + 2 * 10 3 * (100 78.778) 2 ] + + [6 * 10 4 + 1.8 * 10 3 * (10 78.778) 2 ]
n shapes
Izc :=
=1
Iz + An y0 yc 2 n n
Iyc = 2.56 10 mm [2.858 * 10 5 + 700 * (45 31.222) 2 ] +
+ [1.667 * 10 4 + 2 * 10 3 * (5 31.222) 2 ] + + [1.215 * 10 6 + 1.8 * 10 3 * (55 31.222) 2 ]
Izc = 4.043 10 mm Ipolar := Iyc + Izc 2.56 * 10 7 + 4.043 * 10 6 Ipolar = 2.965 10 mm

n shapes
Iyzc :=
=1 [700 * (45 31.222) * (195 78.778)] + [2 *10 3 * (5 31.222) * (100 78.778)] +

n
)(
+ [1.8 *10 3 * (55 31.222) * (10 78.778)]

Iyzc = 2.936 10 mm
6 4
B.5. Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia Note: The centroidal coordinate system Cyczc is used.
- 66 -
Ip1 :=
Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 + 2

2
(2.56 * 10 7 4.043 * 10 6 ) 2 2.56 * 10 7 + 4.043 * 10 6 + + (2.936 * 10 6 ) 2 2 4

Imax := Ip1
Imax = 2.6 10 mm
Ip2 :=
Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

2
2.56 *10 7 + 4.043 * 10 6 (2.56 *10 7 4.043 *10 6 ) 2 + (2.936 * 10 6 ) 2 2 4 Imin = 3.651 10 mm atan
6 4
Imin := Ip2
0_1 :=
1
2
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * (2.936 *10 6 ) ] 0_1 = 7.617 deg tan [ 2 2.56 *10 7 4.043 *10 6 Iyc Izc
tan( 7.617 ) = 0.1337 > 0
7.617 + 90 0_2 = 97.617 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan(97.617 ) = 7.478 < 0

01 :=
0_1 if 0_2 if
( (
Iyzc
)<0 )<0
02 :=
0_1 if 01 0_2 if 01
0_2 0_1
B.6 Step 6 -
calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration
Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of inertia. ryc := rzc := Iyc Atotal Izc Atotal 2.56 *10 7 ryc = 75.43 mm 4.5 *10 3 4.043 *10 6 rzc = 29.975 mm 4.5 *10 3
radii of gyration
- 67 -
rp1 := rp2 :=
Ip1 Atotal
2.6 *10 7 rp1 = 76.006 mm 4.5 *10 3
Ip2 3.651 *10 6 rp2 = 28.483 mm 4.5 *10 3 Atotal

z Dir 2 z z
Dir 1 y y
Figure 2.2.10 B.7 Step 7 construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.11) point Y ( Iyc = 2.56 107 mm4, Iyzc = 2.936 106 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 4.043 106 mm4, Iyzc = 2.936 106 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 4.043 106 mm4, Iyzc = 2.936 106 mm4)
Z( I ,- I 0 P I Z'
) C 2 I P Y( I , I )
Dir 1
=0
Dir 2
Figure 2.2.11
- 68 -
B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.12) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to :
i := 0 .. 24 Iyr := i i := ( i) 24
Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) 2 2 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Izr := cos (2 i) + Iyzcsin(2 i) i 2 2 Iyc Izc Iyzr := sin(2 i) + Iyzccos (2 i) i 2
3 .10
7
Iyr i Izr i Iyzr i
0 7 1.75 .10
180
5 .10
0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
7.5 .10
2 .10
180 i
Figure 2.2.12 Problem 2.2.2.3 Z-Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.13.a) A. General Observations A1. The "Z" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.13.a, is subdivided into three rectangular areas called SHAPE1, SHAPE2 and SHAPE3 (Figure 2.2.13.b). The geometrical characteristics of the rectangular are calculated using the previously obtained formulae. nshapes := 3 A2. number of rectangular areas
The Cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system.
- 69 -
z z y z y z y y
Figure 2.2.13 A3. For numerical application: b1 := 100 mm a := 400 mm tv := 10 mm B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to individual rectangular areas: Data pertinent to area SHAPE1 th1 := 20 mm b2 := 150 mm th2 := 30 mm
Note: The local coordinate system 01y1z1 is used. az := th1 az = 20 mm 1 1 ay := b1 ay = 100 mm 1 1 dimensions centroid O1
th1 20 400 z0 = 390 mm z0 := a 2 2 1 1 ay 1 t 100 10 y = 40 mm y0 := v 01 1 2 2
A1 := az ay 20 *100 A1 = 2 10 mm 1 1
Iy 1
area
4 4
(az1)3ay1 20 *100 I :=
3
12
az ay 20 *100 3 1 1 Iz = 1.667 106 mm4 Iz := 12 1 12 1
( )3
4
12
y1 = 6.667 10 mm
moments of inertia product of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 1
- 70 -
Note: The local coordinate system 02y2z2 is used. az := a th1 th2 400 20 30 az = 350 mm 2 2 ay := tv ay = 10 mm 2 2
350 + 30 z0 = 205 mm z0 := + th2 2 2 2 2
dimensions
az 2
10 y0 = 5 mm y0 := 2 2 2 2 centroid O2
2
ay 2
A2 := az ay 350 *10 A2 = 3.5 10 mm 2 2

Iy 2
area
7 4
(az2)3ay2 350 *10 I :=

3
12
az ay 350 *10 3 2 2 Iz = 2.917 104 mm4 Iz := 12 2 12 2
( )3
4
12
y2 = 3.573 10 mm
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 2
product of inertia
Note: The local coordinate system O3y3z3 is used.

az := th2 az = 30 mm 3 3 az 3 ay := b2 ay = 150 mm 3 3 ay 3 dimensions
30 z0 = 15 mm z0 := 2 3 2 3
150 y0 = 75 mm centroid O3 y0 := 2 3 2 3
3 2
A3 := az ay 30 *150 A3 = 4.5 10 mm 3 3
Iy 3
area
5 4
(az3)3ay3 30 *150 I :=
3
12
az ay 30 *150 3 3 3 Iz = 8.437 106 mm4 Iz := 12 3 12 3
( )3
4
12
y3 = 3.375 10 mm
Iyz := 0 mm 3 B.2 Step 2 Atotal :=
calculation of the cross-section area An 2 * 10 3 + 3.5 * 10 3 + 4.5 * 10 3 Atotal = 1 10 mm

4 2
n shapes
=1
- 71 -
B.3 Step 3 -
calculation of the cross-section centroid C
Note: The local general coordinate system 0y0z0 is used.

nshapes
Sz :=
n=1
(An y0n) (2 *10 * (40)) + (3.5 *10 * 5) + (4.5 *10 * 75)

3 3 3
Sz = 2.75 10 mm
nshapes
Sy :=
n=1
(An z0n) (2 *10 * 390) + (3.5 *10 * 205) + (4.5 *10 *15)
3 3 3
Sy = 1.565 10 mm
Sz 2.75 *10 5 yc = 27.5 mm yc := 10 4 Atotal Sy 1.565 *10 6 zc = 156.5 mm zc := 10 4 Atotal
centroid C
B.4 Step 4 -
calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia, polar moment and product of inertia

n shapes
Iyc :=
=1
Iy + An z0 zc 2 n n
[6.667 * 10 4 + 2 * 10 3 * (390 156.5) 2 ] + + [3.573 * 10 7 + 3.5 * 10 3 * (205 156.5) 2 ] + + [3.375 * 10 5 + 4.5 * 10 3 * (15 156.5) 2 ]
Iyc = 2.435 10 mm
n shapes
Izc :=
=1
[1.667 * 10 6 + 2 * 10 3 * (-40 27.5) 2 ] + Iz + An y0 yc 2 + [2.917 * 10 4 + 3.5 *10 3 * (5 27.5) 2 ] + n n + [8.437 * 10 6 + 4.5 *10 3 * (75 27.5) 2 ]
Izc = 3.117 10 mm Ipolar := Iyc + Izc 2.435 * 10 8 + 3.117 * 10 7 Ipolar = 2.747 10 mm

n shapes
Iyzc :=
=1 [2 *10 * (-40 27.5) * (390 156.5)] + [3.5 *10 3 * (5 27.5) * (205 156.5)] + + [4.5 * 10 3 * (75 27.5) * (15 156.5)]
n
3
)(
- 72 -
Iyzc = 6.559 10 mm B.5 Step 5 -
calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia
Note: The centroidal coordinate system Cyczc located is used. Iyc + Izc
2
Ip1 :=
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 + 2

2
2.435 *10 8 + 3.117 *10 7 (2.435 * 10 8 3.117 *10 7 ) 2 + + (6.559 *10 7 ) 2 2 4 Imax = 2.621 10 mm
8 4
Imax := Ip1 Ip2 := Iyc + Izc

2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

2
2.435 *10 8 + 3.117 *10 7 (2.435 *10 8 3.117 *10 7 ) 2 + (6.559 *10 7 ) 2 2 4 Imin = 1.255 10 mm
7 4
Imin := Ip2
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * (6.559 *10 7 ) ] 0_1 := atan tan [ 2 2 2.435 * 10 8 3.117 *10 7 Iyc Izc
1
0_1 = 15.853 deg tan(15.853) = 0.283 > 0
15.853 + 90 0_2 = 105.853 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan(105 .853) = 3.521 < 0 tan 0_1 angle corresponding to maximum principal 01 := 0_1 if < 0 moment of inertia Iyzc 01 = 15.853 deg tan 0_2 < 0 0_2 if Iyzc
( (
) )
02 :=
0_1 if 01 0_2 if 01
0_2 0_1
B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of inertia. Iyc 2.435 *10 8 ryc = 156.048 mm ryc := 10 4 Atotal - 73 -
rzc :=
Izc 3.117 *10 7 rzc = 55.831 mm 10 4 Atotal Ip1 Atotal 2.621 *10 8 rp1 = 161.906 mm 10 4
rp1 :=
rp2 :=
Ip2 1.255 *10 7 rp2 = 35.42 mm 10 4 Atotal

z z Dir 2 y z y Dir 1
Figure 2.2.14 B.7 Step 7.- construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.15)
8 4 7 4 point Y ( Iyc = 2.435 10 mm , Iyzc = 6.559 10 mm )
point Z ( Izc = 3.117 107 mm4, Iyzc = 6.559 107 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 3.117 107 mm4, Iyzc = 6.559 107 mm4)
Dir 2 Z( I ,- I 0P
Z'
) C I 2 P Y( I , I
Dir 1
=0
Figure 2.2.15 - 74 -
B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.16) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Iyr := + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) i 2 2
3 .10
Iyr Izr
1.75 .10
i
180
i i
5 .10
0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Iyzr
7 7.5 .10
2 .10
180 i
Figure 2.2.16 Problem 2.2.2.4 Composite cross-section using plane areas (Figure 2.2.17.a)
A. General Observations A1. The cross-sectional area, shown in Figure 2.2.17.a, is subdivided into one rectangular areas called SHAPE1, from which it will be deducted the following areas: one triangular area called SHAPE2 and two circular areas called SHAPE3 and SHAPE4 (Figure 2.2.17.b). The geometrical characteristics of these areas can be easily expressed using the formulae from Appendix 2.1. nshapes := 4 A2. The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system.
- 75 -
z y y y z y y
z z
Figure 2.2.17 A.3. The following dimensions are used in the calculation:
b := 300 mm dy1 := 80 mm c := 130 mm dz1 := 80 mm f := 170 mm
a := 400 mm d1 := 20 mm
d2 := 20 mm B. Calculations
dy2 := 80 mm
dz2 := 80 mm
B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual rectangular areas Data pertinent to rectangular area SHAPE1
Note: the local coordinate system 01y1z1 located at the centroid 01 of the area is used az := b a z = 300 mm 1 1
az 1
ay := a a y = 400 mm 1 1
global dimensions centroid 01
300 z0 = 150 mm z0 := 2 1 2 1 ay 400 1 y0 = 200 mm y0 := 2 1 2 1

5 2 A1 := az ay 300 * 400 A1 = 1.2 10 mm 1 1
area
4
Iy 1
( az ) ay 300 * 400 I :=
3 1 1
3
Iz := 1
az ay 1 1
12
( )
12
12
y1 = 9 10 mm
moments of inertia
300 * 400 3 Iz = 1.6 109 mm4 12 1
- 76 -
Iyz := 0 mm 1
product of inertia
Data pertinent to triangular area SHAPE2
Note: - the local coordinate system 02y2z2 is located at the centroid 02 of the area;
az := b f 300 170 az = 130 mm 2 2 ay := a c 400 130 ay = 270 mm 2 2

130 300 z0 = 256.667 mm z0 := b 3 3 2 2 ay 270 2 400 y0 = 310 mm y0 := a 3 3 2 2 1 1 4 2 A2 := az ay * 130 * 270 A2 = 1.755 10 mm 2 2 2 2
dimensions
az 2
centroid O2
area
Iy 2
( az ) ay :=
3 2
Iz := 2
az ay 2 2
36
( )
36
130 3 * 270 Iy = 1.648 107 mm4 36 2 130 * 270 3 Iz = 7.108 107 mm4 36 2
2 2
moments of inertia
Iyz := 2
az ay 2 2 72
( )2 ( )2 130 * 270
72
Iyz = 1.711 107 mm4

2
product of inertia Data pertinent to circular area SHAPE3
Note: the local coordinate system 03y3z3 located at the centroid 03 of the area is used
d1 20 r1 = 10 mm r1 := 2 2 z0 := dz1 z0 = 80 mm
3
dimension centroid O3
y0 := dy1 y0 = 80 mm 3 3
2 A3 := r12 * 10 2 A3 = 314.159 mm
area moments of inertia
Iy := 3 Iy := 3
r14
4
*10 4 Iy = 7.854 103 mm4 4 3 *10 4 Iz = 7.854 103 mm4 4 3
r14
4
- 77 -
Iyz := 0 mm 3
product of inertia
Data pertinent to circular area SHAPE4
Note: the local coordinate system 04y4z4 located at the centroid 04 of the area is used
d2 20 r = 10 mm r2 := 2 2 2 z0 := dz2 z0 = 80 mm
4
dimension centroid O4
y0 := a dy2 400 80 y0 = 320 mm 4 4

2 A4 := r22 * 10 2 A4 = 314.159 mm
area moments of inertia
Iy := 4 Iz := 4
r24
4
*10 4 Iy = 7.854 103 mm4 4 4 *10 4 Iz = 7.854 103 mm4 4 4
r24
4
Iyz := 0 mm 4
product of inertia

n shapes
Atotal := A1
5 4 An 1.2 *10 1.755 * 10 + 314.159 + 314.159
=2
Atotal = 1.018 10 mm
5 2
total area
B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C Note: the local general coordinate system 0y0z0 located at point 0 of the cross-section is used
Sz := A1 y0
5
) (Any0n)
n=2
nshapes
1.2 *10 * 200 1.755 *10 4 * 310 + 314.159 * 80 + 314.159 * 320

Sz = 1.843 10 mm
7 3 nshapes n=2
Sy := A1 z0
5
) (Anz0n)
( )
- 78 -
1.2 * 10 * 150 1.755 * 10 4 * 256 .667 + 314 .159 * 80 + 314 .159 * 80
Sy = 1.345 10 mm
static moments 1.843 * 10 yc = 181.04 mm yc := 1.018 *10 5 Atotal Sy 1.345 * 10 7 zc = 132.047 mm zc := Atotal 1.018 *10 5 B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system Cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used;
nshapes nshapes I + A1 z z An z z 2 Iy + Iyc := y 01 c 0n c n 1 n=2 n=2 2 9 *108 + 1.2 *105 * (150 132.047 ) 1.648 *10 7 + 7.854 *103 + 7.854 *103 +
Sz
centroid C
moments of inertia
+ 1.755 *10 4 * (256.667 132.047 )2 + 314.159 * (80 132.047 )2 + 314.159 * (80 132.047 )2
Iyc = 6.479 10 mm
nshapes nshapes I + A1 y y 2 An y y 2 Iz + Izc := z 01 c 0n c n 1 n=2 n=2 1.6 *109 + 1.2 *105 * (200 181.04 )2 7.108 *10 7 + 7.854 *103 + 7.854 *103 +
+ 1.755 *10 4 * (310 181.04 )2 + 314.159 * (80 181.04 )2 + 314.159 * (320 181.04 )2
Izc = 1.271 10 mm
9 4
Ipolar := Iyc + Izc 6.479 * 10 8 + 1.271 * 10 9 Ipolar = 1.919 10 mm polar moment of inertia
Iyzc := Iyz + A1 y0 yc z0 zc 1 1 1
)(
nshapes
n=2
product of inertia
nshapes
Iyz + n
n=2
An y0 yc z0 zc n n
)(
0 + 1.2 *105 * (200 181.04) * (150 132.047 ) 1.171*10 7 + 0 + 0
+ 1.755 *10 4 * (310 181.04 )* (256.667 132.047 ) + 314.159 * (80 181.04 )* (80 132.047 ) + + 314.159 * (320 181.04 )* (80 132.047 )] 8 4
Iyzc = 2.235 10 mm
- 79 -
B.5 Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system Cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used; Iyc + Izc + Ip1 := 2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2
6.479 * 108 + 1.271 * 109 + 2

Imax := Ip1
(6.479 *10
2
1.271 * 109 4
) + ( 2.235 *10 )
2
8 2
Imax = 1.343 10 mm
Ip2 :=
Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2
6.479 * 108 + 1.271 * 109 2

Imin := Ip2
(6.479 *10
1.271 * 109 4
) + ( 2.235 *10 )
2
8 2
Imin = 5.761 10 mm
0_1 :=
1
2
atan
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * ( 2.235 *108 ) 2 tan 6.479 *108 1.271 * 109 Iyc Izc
0_1 = 17.828 deg tan( 17.828) = 0.32 < 0
19.8 + 90 0_2 = 72.172 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan( 72.172 ) = 3.11 > 0
01 := 0_1 if 0_2 if 02 := tan 0_1 tan 0_2 Iyzc
( (
Iyzc
)<0 )<0
0_1 if 01 0_2 if 01
0_2 0_1
- 80 -
Dir 1
y z y y
Dir 2
Figure 2.2.18 B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration Note: - two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of inertia. ryc := rzc := rp1 := rp2 := Iyc 6.479 *10 8 ryc = 79.771 mm 1.018 *10 5 Atotal Izc 1.271 * 10 9 rzc = 111.721 mm 1.018 *10 5 Atotal Ip1 1.343 *10 9 rp1 = 114.837 mm 1.018 *10 5 Atotal Ip2 5.761 * 10 8 rp2 = 75.217 mm 1.018 * 10 5 Atotal
radii of gyration
B.7 Step 7 - construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.19) point X ( Iyc = 6.479 108 mm4, Iyzc = 2.235 108 mm4) point Y ( Izc = 1.271 109 mm4, Iyzc = 2.235 108 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 1.271 109 mm4, Iyzc = 2.235 108 mm4)
- 81 -

0 = Z( I ,- I
Dir 2 0 P
I P
Y(I , I
Z' Dir 1
Figure 2.2.19 B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.20) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) Iyr := 2 2 i
9
1.5 .10
Iyr Izr
1 .10
i
180
i i
5 .10
Iyzr
0 0 5 .10
8
30
60
90
120
150
180
180 i Figure 2.2.20
- 82 -
Problem 2.2.2.5 Cross-section made from plates and rolled shapes (Figure 2.2.21.a)
z Pl 130 x 25 z y
I 36
z h y
Figure 2.2.21 A. General Observations A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.21.a, is composed from two structural shapes, an I36 and a plate 130mmx25mm, called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure 2.2.21.b). The geometrical characteristics of the I36 are obtained from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.1, while those pertinent to the plate, which is a rectangular shape, are calculated. A.2. The vertical axis of the cross-section is a symmetry axis and consequently, the axes of the centroidal coordinate system identify with the principal directions. A3. The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system. B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual rectangular areas Data pertinent to I36 (area SHAPE1)
Note: the local coordinate system 01y1z1 located at the centroid 01 of the area is used depth h1 := 360 mm flange width b1 := 143 mm
z0 = 0 mm 1 A1 := 97.1 cm
2
y0 = 0 mm 1
4
centroid 01 area
Iy := 19610 cm 1
Iz := 818 cm 1
moments of inertia
- 83 -
Iyz := 0 mm 1
product moment of inertia
Data pertinent to plate 130mm x 25mm (area SHAPE2)
Note: - the local coordinate system 02y2z2 is located at the centroid 02 of the area;
az = 25 mm 2 ay = 130 mm 2
global dimensions centroid 02
360 25 + z0 = 192.5 mm + z0 := 2 2 2 2 2 2 y0 := 0
2
3 2 A2 := az ay 25 *130 A2 = 3.25 10 mm 2 2
h1
az 2
area
4
Iy 2
(az2)3ay2 25 *130 I :=
3
12
az ay 25 *130 3 2 2 Iz = 4.577 106 mm4 Iz := 12 2 12 2
( )3
4
12
y2 = 1.693 10 mm
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 2
product moment of inertia

nshapes
Atotal :=
n=1
An 97.1 * 10 2 + 3.25 * 10 3 Atotal = 1.296 10 mm
total area B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C Note: the local general coordinate system 0y0z0 located at point o of the cross-section is used
nshapes
Sz :=
n=1 nshapes
(Any0n) 97.1*10 (Anz0n) 97.1*10
* 0 + 3.25 * 10 3 * 0 Sz = 0 mm
Sy :=
* 0 + 3.25 * 10 3 * 192 .5 Sy = 6.256 10 mm
n=1
static moments
- 84 -
0 yc = 0 mm yc := Atotal 1.296 * 10 4 Sy 6.256 *10 5 zc = 48.274 mm zc := 4 Atotal 1.296 * 10
Sz
position of the centroid
B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system Cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used; moments of inertia
n shapes n shapes
Iyc :=
n =1 =1 2 2 4 19610 * 10 + 1.693 * 10 5 + 97.1 * 10 2 * (0 48.274 ) + 3.25 * 10 3 * (192 .5 48.274 ) n
Iy + n
An z0 zc 2 n
Iyc = 2.865 10 mm
n shapes
Izc :=
n shapes
=1
Iz + n
=1
An y0 yc 2 n
7 4
818 * 10 4 + 4.577 * 10 6 + 97.1 * 10 2 * 0 + 3.25 * 10 3 * 0 Izc = 1.276 10 mm

8 4
Ipolar := Iyc + Izc 2.865 * 10 8 + 1.276 * 10 7 Ipolar = 2.993 10 mm polar moment of inertia
nshapes
Iyzc :=
n=1
nshapes
Iyz + n
n=1
An y0 yc z0 zc n n
Iyzc = 0 mm
4
)(
product of inertia
B.5 Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia Note: - the product of inertia Iyzc = 0 mm4 and consequently, the principal axes are the centroidal axes. B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration
ryc := Iyc Atotal
2.865 *10 8 ryc = 148.683 mm 1.296 *10 4
radii of gyration
- 85 -
rzc :=
Izc Atotal
1.276 *10 7 rzc = 31.374 mm 1.296 *10 4
Dir 2 z z
y z y
Dir 1
Figure 2.2.22 B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.23)
3 .10 1.75 .10

i
Iyr Izr
180
i i
5 .10 7.5 .10
0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Iyzr
2 .10
180 i Figure 2.2.23
We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Iyr := + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) 2 2 i
- 86 -
cos (2 i) + Iyzcsin(2 i) 2 2 Iyc Izc sin(2 i) + Iyzccos (2 i) Iyzr := 2 i Izr := i
Iyc + Izc
Iyc Izc
z U 30 b
z h U 20 y y z y h b
Figure 2.2.24 A. General Observations A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.24.a, is composed from two structural shapes, a U30 and a U20, called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure 2.2.24.b). The geometrical characteristics of both U shapes are obtained from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.2 A2. The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system. nshapes := 2 B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual areas number of areas considered in the calculation
Data pertinent to U30 (area SHAPE1)
Note: the local coordinate system 01y1z1 located at the centroid 01 of the area
h1 := 300 mm b1 := 100 mm ey1 := 2.70 cm
total depth flange width local eccentricity of the centroid O1 - 87 -
A1 := 58.8 cm
area Iz := 495 cm 1
4
Iy := 8030 cm 1 Iyz := 0 mm 1
z0 := 0 mm 1
4
y0 := 0 mm 1
centroid O1
Data pertinent to U20 (area SHAPE2)
Note: the local coordinate system 02y2z2 located at the centroid 02 of the area
h2 := 200 mm b2 := 75 mm ez := 2.01 cm
2
total depth flange width local eccentricity of the centroid O2 area Iz := 1910 cm 2
4
A2 := 32.2 cm
Iy := 148 cm 2 Iyz := 0 mm 2
4

centroid O2
h1 300 20.1 z0 = 129.9 mm z0 := ez 2 2 2 2 2 h2 200 27.0 + y0 = 127 mm y0 := ey1 + 2 2 2 2

nshapes
Atotal :=
n=1
An 58.8 * 10 2 + 32.2 * 10 2 Atotal = 9.1 10 mm
total area
B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C Note: the local general coordinate system 0y0z0 located at point 0 of the cross-section is used
nshapes
Sz :=
n=1
(An y0n) 58.8 *10
* 0 + 32.2 * 10 2 * 127 Sz = 4.089 10 mm
nshapes
Sy :=
n=1
(An z0n) 58.8 *10 * 0 + 32.2 *10 * ( 129.9)

2 2
Sy = 4.183 10 mm
- 88 -
4.089 *10 5 yc = 44.938 mm yc := 9.1 *10 3 Atotal Sy 4.183 * 10 5 zc = 45.965 mm zc := 9.1 *10 3 Atotal B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia
Sz
centroid C
Note: - the local coordinate system Cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used;
nshapes
Iyc :=
8030 * 10 4 + 148 *10 4 + 58.8 *10 2 * (0 + 45.965) + 32.2 * 10 2 * ( 129.9 + 45.965)

Iyc = 1.169 10 mm
nshapes 8 4 nshapes
n=1
nshapes
Iy + n
n=1
An z z 2 0n c
Izc :=
495 * 10 + 1910 * 10 4 + 58.8 * 10 2 * (0 44.938) + 32.2 * 10 2 * (127 44.938)

4
n=1
Iz + n
n=1
An y y 2 0n c
Izc = 5.761 10 mm
7 4

nshapes
Iyzc :=
58.8 * 10 * (0 44.938) * (0 + 45.965) + 32.2 * 10 2 * (127 44.938) * ( 129.9 + 45.965)

2
n=1
nshapes
Iyz + n
n=1
An y0 yc z0 zc n n
Iyzc = 3.432 10 mm
7 4
)(
B.5 Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used; Iyc + Izc + Ip1 := 2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

+ 3.432 *10 7
2
1.169 *10 8 5.761 *10 7 1.169 *10 8 + 5.761 *10 7 + 2 2

Imax := Ip1
Imax = 1.326 10 mm
- 89 -
Ip2 :=
Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

2
1.169 *10 8 5.761 *10 7 1.169 *10 8 + 5.761 *10 7 2 2

Imin := Ip2 1
+ 3.432 *10 7
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * ( 3.432 *10 7 ) 0_1 := atan 2 tan 1.169 *10 8 5.761 *10 7 2 Iyc Izc
Imin = 4.19 107 mm4
0_1 = 24.594 deg tan( 24.954 ) = 0.46 > 0
24.594 + 90 0_2 = 114.594 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan(114 .594 ) = 2.18 < 0 angle corresponding to maximum tan 0_1 principal moment of inertia 01 := 0_1 if < 0 Iyzc 01 = 24.594 deg
( (
02 :=
Iyzc 0_1 if 01 0_2 0_2 if 01
0_2 if
tan 0_2
)<0
0_1
z
y z
Dir 1
y Dir 2
Figure 2.2.25 B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration Note: - two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of inertia.
- 90 -
ryc := rzc := rp1 := rp2 :=
Iyc 1.169 *10 8 ryc = 113.335 mm 9.1 * 10 3 Atotal Izc 5.761 *10 7 rzc = 79.565 mm 9.1 *10 3 Atotal Ip1 1.326 * 10 8 rp1 = 120.712 mm 9.1 * 10 3 Atotal Ip2 Atotal 4.19 *10 7 rp2 = 67.854 mm 9.1 *10 3
radii of gyration
radii of gyration
B.7 Step 7.- construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.26) point Y ( Iyc = 1.169 108 mm4, Iyzc = 3.432 107 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 5.761 107 mm4, Iyzc = 3.432 107 mm4) point Z ( Izc = 5.761 107 mm4, Iyzc = 3.432 107 mm4)
Z( I ,- I 0 P I
) C 2 I P Y( I , I
Dir 1 )
Z' Dir 2
Figure 2.2.26
B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.27) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Iyr := + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) 2 2 i
Izr := i Iyc + Izc 2 Iyc Izc 2 cos (2 i) + Iyzcsin(2 i)
- 91 -
Iyzr := i
Iyc Izc 2
1.5 .10 1 .10
i
Iyr Izr
180
i i
5 .10
Iyzr
0 0 5 .10
7
30
60
90
120
150
180
180 i Figure 2.2.27
z Pl 150 x 20 U 30 z b z y h y z y y
L 80 x 80x 10
Figure 2.2.28 A. General Observations A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.28.a, is composed from three structural shapes, an U30 a, a plate 150mm x 25mm and an L80x80x10, called SHAPE1, SHAPE2 and SHAPE3, respectively (Figure 2.2.28.b). The geometrical characteristics of both U and L shapes are obtained from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.2 and Table 2.2.3, while the geometrical characteristics of the plate are calculated as for a rectangular area. A2. The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y0z0 is used as the original reference coordinate system. number of rectangular areas considered in the calculation nshapes := 3 - 92 -
B. Calculations B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual rectangular areas Data pertinent to U30 (area SHAPE1) Note: the local coordinate system 01y1z1 located at the centroid 01 of the area total depth h1 := 300 mm flange width b1 := 100 mm local eccentricity of the centroid 01 ez1 := 2.70 cm
A1 := 58.8 cm
2
area Iz := 8030 cm 1
4
Iy := 495 cm 1 Iyz := 0 mm 1
z0 := 0 mm 1
4
moments of inertia product moment of inertia
y0 := 0 mm 1
centroid 01
Data pertinent to plate 150mm x 20mm (area SHAPE2) Note: the local coordinate system 02y2z2 located at the centroid 02 of the area az := 150 mm
2
ay := 20 mm 2
3 2 A2 := az ay 150 * 20 A2 = 3 10 mm 2 2
dimensions area
6 4
Iy 2
(az2)3ay2 150 * 20 I :=
3
12
az ay 150 * 203 2 2 Iz = 1 105 mm4 Iz := 12 2 12 2
( )3
4
12
y2 = 5.625 10 mm
moments of inertia
Iyz := 0 mm 2
az 2
product of inertia centroid 02
150 27.0 z0 = 48 mm z0 := ez1 2 2 2 2 ay h1 300 20 2 + y0 = 160 mm + y0 := 2 2 2 2 2 2
Data pertinent to L80x80x10 (area SHAPE3) Note: the local coordinate system 03y3z3 located at the centroid 03 of the area az := 80 mm
3
ay := 80 mm 3
flange dimensions
- 93 -
ez3 := 2.34 cm ey3 := 2.34 cm

2 3 2 A3 := 15.10 cm A3 = 1.51 10 mm
local eccentricity of the centroid 03 area moments of inertia
4 5 4 Iy := 87.5 cm Iy = 8.75 10 mm 3 3 4 5 4 Iz := 87.5 cm Iz = 8.75 10 mm 3 3
The product of inertia for the rotated position of the shape is calculated using additional data from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.3: y v 4 4 4 Iu := 139 cm Iv := 36.3 cm Iuv := 0 cm y 3 3 3 =+45 := 45 deg (as shown in Figure 2.2.29) u Figure 2.2.29 Iu Iv 139 36.3 3 3 * sin(2 * 45) + 0 sin(2 ) + Iuv cos (2 ) Iyz := 2 2 3 3
Iyz = 5.135 10 mm
3 5 4
NOTE: The product of inertia was calculated using the formula (2.13) in which we consider =45 centroid O3 z0 := ez1 + ez3 (27.0 + 23.4) z0 = 50.4 mm
300 23.4 y0 = 126.6 mm y0 := ey3 3 3 2 2

n shapes
h1
Atotal :=
An 5.88 * 10 3 + 3 * 10 3 + 1.51 * 10 3 Atotal = 1.039 10 mm
=1 total area
B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C Note: the local general coordinate system 0y0z0 located at point o of the cross-section is used
nshapes
Sz :=
n=1
(An y0n) 5.88 *10 * 0 + 3 *10 *160 + 1.51*10 * (126.6)

3 3 3
Sz = 2.888 10 mm
nshapes
Sy :=
n=1
(An z0n) 5.88 *10 * 0 + 3 *10 * 48 + 1.51*10 * (50.4)

3 3 3
- 94 -
Sy = 6.79 10 mm
Sz 2.888 *10 5 yc = 27.799 mm yc := 1.039 *10 4 Atotal Sy 6.79 *10 4 zc = 6.535 mm zc := Atotal 1.039 *10 4
centroid C
B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used;
n shapes
Iyc :=
n shapes
495 *10 + 5.625 *10 6 + 87.5 *10 4 + 58.8 *10 2 * (0 6.535) + 3 *10 3 * (48 6.535) + 2 + 1.51 *10 3 * ( 50.4 6.535)
2 2
=1
Iy + n
=1
An z0 zc 2 n
Iyc = 2.175 10 mm
n shapes
Izc :=
n shapes
8030 * 10 4 + 1 * 10 5 + 87.5 * 10 4 + 58.8 * 10 2 * (0 27.8) + 3 * 10 3 * (160 27.8) + 2 + 1.51 * 10 3 * ( 126.6 27.8)

2 2
=1
Iz + n
=1
An y0 yc 2 n
Izc = 1.742 10 mm

n shapes
Iyzc :=
n shapes
0 + 0 + 5.135 *10 + 58.8 *10 2 * (0 27.8) * (0 6.535) + 3 *103 * (160 27.8) * (48 27.8) +
5
n
3
=1
Iyz + n
+ 1.51*10 * ( 126.6 27.8) * ( 50.4 6.535)
=1
An y0 yc z0 zc n n
)(
Iyzc = 2.845 10 mm
B.5 Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia Note: - the local coordinate system Cyczc located at the centroid C of the area is used; Ip1 := Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 + 2

2
2
2.175 * 10 7 1.742 * 108 2.175 * 107 + 1.742 * 108 + 2.845 * 107 + 2 2
- 95 -
Imax := Ip1
Imax = 1.658 10 mm
Ip2 :=
Iyc + Izc
2
Iyc Izc + Iyzc2 2

2
2
2.175 * 107 1.742 * 108 2.175 * 107 + 1.742 * 108 + 2.875 * 10 7 2 2
Imin := Ip2
Imin = 1.614 10 mm
0_1 :=
1
2
atan
2Iyzc 1 1 2 * 3.027 *10 7 tan 2 2.175 *10 7 1.742 *108 Iyc Izc
0_1 = 11.171 deg tan(11.171) = 0.19 > 0
11.171 + 90 0_2 = 101.171 deg 0_2 := 0_1 + 2 tan(101.171) = 5.06 < 0
01 :=
0_1 if 0_2 if
( (
Iyzc
)<0 )<0
angle corresponding to principal moment of inertia 01 = 101.171 deg
maximum
02 :=
0_1 if 01 0_2 if 01
0_2 0_1
z z
angle corresponding to principal moment of inertia 02 = 11.171 deg

r2 Di
minimum
z y Dir 1
y y
Figure 2.2.30 B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration Note: - two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of inertia.
- 96 -
ryc := rzc := rp1 := rp2 :=
Iyc 2.175 *10 7 ryc = 45.757 mm 1.039 *10 4 Atotal Izc 1.742 *10 8 rzc = 129.502 mm 1.039 *10 4 Atotal Ip1 1.8 * 10 8 rp1 = 131.636 mm 1.039 *10 4 Atotal Ip2 1.596 *10 7 rp2 = 39.198 mm 1.039 *10 4 Atotal
radii of gyration
radii of gyration
B.7 Step 7.- construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.31) point Y ( Iyc = 2.175 107 mm4, Iyzc = 2.845 10 mm )
7 4
point Z ( Izc = 1.742 108 mm4, Iyzc = 2.845 10 mm )

7 4
point Z ( Izc = 1.742 108 mm4, Iyzc = 2.845 10 mm )

7 4
Dir 1 Y( I , I 0 Dir 2 P I C ) Z' I 2 P )

= 0
Z( I ,- I
Figure 2.2.31 B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.32) We consider that the axes rotates with an angle i between 0 to : i := ( i) i := 0 .. 24 24 Iyc + Izc Iyc Izc Iyr := + cos (2 i) Iyzcsin(2 i) i 2 2
- 97 -
Izr := i
cos (2 i) + Iyzcsin(2 i) 2 2 Iyc Izc Iyzr := sin(2 i) + Iyzccos (2 i) i 2

2 .10 1.25 .10
i 8
Iyc + Izc
Iyc Izc
Iyr Izr
180
i i
5 .10 2.5 .10
Iyzr
0
7
30
60
90
120
150
180
1 .10
180 i Figure 2.2.32
2.3 Proposed Problems Calculate the following geometrical characteristics: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) area position of the centroid centroidal moments and product of inertia centroidal principal moments and directions radii of gyration
and draw: (a) the Mohrs circle (b) the variation of the centroidal moments of inertia and product of inertia considering a rotation of the coordinate system with an angle varying from = 0 to = 2 for all the cross-sections shown in Figures 2.3.1 to 2.3.33 Note: Dimensions are in mm unless noted
- 98 -
parabola
40 cm h=30 cm 20 cm
b=60 cm
Figure 2.3.1
20 mm 10 cm
Figure 2.3.2
20 mm
5 cm
10 cm 50 cm
250 mm
30 cm
20 cm
500 mm
Figure 2.3.3
400 15
Figure 2.3.4
360 105
15 280 15 250 30
30
30
400
120 15
Figure 2.3.5
Figure 2.3.6
110
20
400 mm 200 mm
0 10
200
110
200
Figure 2.3.7 - 99 Figure 2.3.8
100 mm
100 mm
180
30
10 mm
240 mm
semi-circle
150 mm
r= 10 cm
150 mm
50 50 b = 30 cm
Figure 2.3.9
200 100
Figure 2.3.10
260 30
200
30
30 460
200
400
400
Figure 2.3.11
200 90 200
30
Figure 2.3.12
400
400
100
50 100 50
Figure 2.3.13
Figure 2.3.14
2a
2 = 120
a= 20 c
Figure 2.3.15
Figure 2.3.16
- 100 -
150 200
50
c 20 2a= m
100
100
100
100
10 0
50 50 50
2 00
100
100
100
Figure 2.3.17
Figure 2.3.18
Pl 6 in x 1/2 in Pl 270 x 10 W 18 x 71 U 24 C 10 x 30 Pl 270 x 10 Figure 2.3.19 Figure 2.3.20
2 L 80 x 80 x 6 10
L 90 x 90 x 10
U 18 Pl 240 x 20 10 Figure 2.3.21 Figure 2.3.22
- 101 -
240 Pl 300 x 20 12
600
Pl 500 x 10 12
L 80 x 80 x 8 12
200
Pl 300 x 20
Figure 2.3.23
Figure 2.3.24
Pl 240 x 16 L 65 x 50 x 9
Pl 400 x 10
U 30
Pl 150 x 16 Figure 2.3.25 Figure 2.3.26
I 18 U 20 U 20
Pl 180 x 20 U 22
I 18
Figure 2.3.27
L 70 x 70 x 8
Figure 2.3.28
- 102 -
NOTE: For cross-sections shown in Figures 2.3.29 and 2.3.30, net geometrical characteristics are required. (Hint: subtract the bolts holes)
60 60 Pl 450 x 15
L 90 x 90 x 11 Pl 600 x 10
L 90 x 90x 10 60
200 M16 M20 Pl 450 x 12 60 60
60 Pl 450 x 15
L 80 x 80 x 10
Figure 2.3.29
Figure 2.3.30
- 103 -
CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium of Plane Linear Members

3.1 Theoretical Background 3.1.1 Type of Loads, Supports and Reactions The external forces (loads) applied to plane linear beams are described in the vertical plane of the beam and are classified as: a. distributed forces acting on a particular segment or the entire length of the beam; b. concentrated forces acting in a particular point of the beam; c. distributed moments acting on a particular segment or the entire length of the beam; d. concentrated moments (couples) acting in a particular point of the beam. The movement of a point located on the left axis of the beam resulting from the application of forces in the Oxy plane is completely determined by three generalized components: two in-plane translations (displacements) and a rotation. The two displacements are chosen, for convenience, in the directions ox and oy of the coordinates system attached to the beam, while the rotation is described by the angular motion about an axis parallel to the oz axis located at the point of interest (normal to the plane of the definition plane). The forces and moments resulting from the constraints induced by the existence of supports, accordingly with the Newtons First Law, are called reactions. By constraining the free movement of the material point three types of supports are created: a. the roller support prevents the displacement in the direction normal to the rolling plane and is replaced in the free-body diagram by a corresponding reaction represented by a concentrated force as shown for case1 of Table 3.1. A similar case is that of a supporting cable illustrated in case 2 of Table 3.1; b. the pined (clamped) support impedes both translational displacement in the beam description plane and is replaced in the free-body diagram by a reaction, commonly represented by two orthogonal concentrated force components as depicted in case 3 of Table 3.1; c. the fixed support completely prevents all translational displacement and rotation in the beam definition plane and is replaced in the free-body
- 118 -
diagram by a set of reactions commonly represented by two orthogonal concentrated force components and a concentrated moment as depicted in case 4 of Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Plan Supports and Reactions
The drawing of the beam containing the exterior loads and the reaction forces obtained by replacing the supports with their corresponding reaction forces is called the free-body diagram of the beam. If the number of unknown reactions is equal to the number of independent equilibrium equations the beam is a statically determinate beam. If the number of unknown reactions is larger than three the beam is called statically indeterminate beam. Only the statically determinate beams are treated in this chapter. 3.1.2 Cross-Sectional Internal Resultants In general there are six (6) internal resultants, F ( x ) , V y (x ) , V z ( x ) , T ( x ) ,
M y ( x ) and M z ( x ) , are present in the cross-section. They are illustrated in Figure 3.1.a.
(a) Figure 3.1 (a) Three-dimensional case and (b) Loads in Oxy plane
- 119 -
(b)
If the loads are acting in the vertical plane Oxy , only three internal resultants, F ( x ) , V y ( x ) and M z ( x ) have values different than zero. In order to simplify the notation
the subscript indices are dropped and the internal resultants are noted as: F ( x ) , V ( x ) and M ( x ) . This is the case illustrated in Figure 3.1.b. 3.1.3 Types of Statically Determinate Beams In the technical language employed by structural engineers, beams are identified by the manner in which they are supported. Types of beams studied in the present chapter are: a. cantilevered beam, shown in Figure 3.2, has only one end, point C, constrained against movement in both, horizontal and vertical, directions and against the rotation around an axis parallel to the oz axis b. simply supported beam, shown in Figure 3.3, has one end, point A, constrained only in the vertical direction by a roller support, while the other end, point B, is constrained in both vertical and horizontal directions by a pined support or clamped support;; c. beam with overhang, shown in Figure 3.4, is a simply supported type beam which has cantilevers located at one or both ends
Figure 3.2 Cantilevered Beam
Figure 3.3 Simply Supported Beam

- 120 -
Figure 3.4 Beam with Overhang 3.1.4 Method 1 - Calculation of the Internal Resultants Using Method of Sections The calculation is conducted as: Step 1. The beam is first conceptually freed of constraints and then, the corresponding reactions, as described in the previous section. At this point, the schematic diagram containing only the externally applied forces and reaction forces is identified. This way the free-body diagram is constructed; Step 2. Using this diagram the equations of equilibrium (3.1) of the entire beam are written as:
=0
=0
M
O
=0
(3.1)
Note: Only the number of equilibrium equations is fixed at three, but the way to write these equations is of personal preference. Step 3. The linear algebraic system is solved and the three unknown reaction forces are calculated. Step 4. After the reactions have been calculated, the beam is conceptually sectioned, as by a cutting-plane coincidental with a cross-section located at distance x C from the origin point. This separation operation is called the method of sections. To maintain intact the equilibrium of the two separated parts, the corresponding internal resultants are introduced and two free-body diagrams are obtained. Writing the equilibrium of one of the two previously obtained free-body diagrams the internal resultants are obtained.
=0
=0
M
C
=0
(3.2)
Note: the sectioning of the beam is repeated as many times it is necessary to calculate a meaningful set of values for the internal resultants and define their variation along the length of the beam.
- 121 -
Step 5. Using the sign convention described below the graphs representing the internal resultants are plotted.
The sign convention for the cross-section internal resultants, illustrated in Figure 3.5, is stated as:
1. the positive shear force, V , acts in the negative direction of the oy axis at the face x + of the cross-section; 2. the positive bending moment, M , makes the face concave.
y + of the beam
Figure 3.5 Sign Convention for Internal Resultants Note: the variation of the internal resultant plotted in-between the cross-sections calculated is unknown and for practical reason is considered linear. For this reason, in order to obtain a variation closed to the real one, the number of cross-sections use in the calculation has to be judiciously chosen or the variation judged using other method. This method is not used for practical applications. 3.1.5 Method 2 - Differential Relations between Loads and Cross-Section Internal Resultants The free-body diagram concept will be extended to write the equilibrium of the elementary volume around a point of the beam. The free-body diagram of the elementary volume is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Equilibrium of Elementary Beam Volume
- 122 -
The external forces acting on the elementary volume are considered to be uniformly distributed, their variation being small enough to be neglected over the short length x quantity. These are represented by two distributed forces, p n ( x) and pt ( x) , and a distributed moment m(x) , all acting in the positive sense relative to the respective axes. The sign convention for the external loads is: 1. the positive tangential distributed and concentrated loads on the beam longitudinal axis ox act in the positive direction of ox axis; the positive normal distributed and concentrated loads on the beam longitudinal axis ox act in the positive direction of oy axis; the positive distributed and concentrated bending moments act in the positive direction of the oz axis according to the right-hand rule.
2.
3.
The differential relations between external loads and cross-sectional internal resultants are:
dF = pt ( x) dx dV = pn ( x) dx (3.3)
(3.4)
dM = V ( x) m( x) dx
(3.5)
If the differential equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5) are integrated and the initial boundary conditions at x = 0 are enforced, the following expressions are obtained:
F ( x) = F0 pt ( x) * dx
(3.6) (3.7) (3.8)
V ( x ) = V0 + p n ( x ) * dx
M ( x) = M 0 + V ( x) * dx m( x) * dx
Note: From equations (3.6) through (3.8) important practical conclusions are derived: (a) the loading functions p n ( x) , pt ( x) and m(x) must be continuous functions on finite-intervals for the integration to be possible;
- 123 -
(b) the cross-sections where concentrated forces and moments are acting represent discontinuity points. Those cases are treated as limiting cases of the expressions obtained above; (c) the integrals in equations (3.6) and (3.7) represent the area contained under the loading curve over the length of the integration interval. The shear force related integral in equation (3.8) represents the area contained under the shear force curve over the length of the integration interval; (d) values representing the boundary conditions of the cross-section internal resultants at the beginning of the integration interval must be known in order to evaluate the cross-sectional internal resultants on that interval. The integrals contained in the equations (3.6) through (3.8) can be evaluated if the load variation is established. Table 3.2 contains the most simple, but frequently used variations. Table 3.2 Variation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment
Case Load Distribution Shear Force Variation constant linear Parabola 2nd Order Bending Moment Variation linear Parabola 2nd Order Parabola 3rd Order
1 2 3
No load Constant Linear
The following steps are required to construct de cross-sectional internal resultants graphs using the differential equations (3.4) trough (3.6): Step 1, 2 and 3 are identical to these used in the first method. Step 4. The beam length is divided in continuity intervals following the variation of the load. The discontinuity points, where the concentrated moments and forces are located, are also identified. Step 5. Starting with the first interval from the left end of the beam, one integrates the differential equations (3.4) through (3.6) to the particular variation of the load characterizing that particular interval of continuity. This way the internal resultants and their variation are obtained. The operation is repeated for all established continuity intervals. Step 6. The calculated values and the knowledge of their variation provide enough information for the plotting of the internal resultant graphical representation (diagrams).
- 124 -
3.2 Solved Problems Problem 3.2.1- Cantilevered Beam Calculate and draw the shear force and moment diagram for the plane beam loaded as shown in Figure 3.2.1.a.
Figure 3.2.1.a A. General Observations A.1. A number of four (4) cross-sections define the variation of the loading, the continuity intervals, along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the following positions:
x1 := 0 m x2 := 1 m x3 := 2 m x4 := 4 m
measured from the fixed end of the cantilever. A.2 The existence of the reactions at point 1, the fixed end of the cantilever, identifies that point as a point of discontinuity. Also, in a similar situation, a discontinuity point, is the point where the concentrated force P is located. A.3. The external system of forces acting in the vertical plane of the beam, is composed from a concentrated force P := 4000 N and an uniformly distributed N force q := 3000 . m
B. Calculations B.1. Construction of the free-body diagram (Figure 3.2.1.b) The fixed support placed at the left end of the beam is replaced with two concentrated reaction forces, one horizontal, F1 , and one vertical, V1 , and one concentrated moment, M 1 . The reaction forces and moment are illustrated in Figure 3.2.1.b and together with the external loading system represent the free-body diagram corresponding to the cantilevered beam.
- 125 -
M1 1 F1 V1 x1 = x 2=
P = 2
q = 3 4
x 3=
x 4=
Figure 3.2.1.b B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces and moments A number of three reactions are required to be calculated and an equal number of equations of equilibrium are available. It can be concluded that the system is statically determinate. First equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the horizontal direction -x):
x
= 0 F1 = 0 * N
no axial force
Second equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the vertical direction -y):
y
=0
V1 P q x4 x3
0 solve, V1 10000 N
V1 4 3 * (4 2) = 0 V1 := 10000 N
Third equilibrium equation (all moment in point 1 created by the forces rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):
z
M
1
=0
M1 + P x2 x1 + q x4 x3 x3 x1 +
x4 x3 2
0 solve, M1 22000 N m
4 3 M 1 + 4000 * 1 + 3000 * (4 2) * 2 + = 0 M1 := 22000 N m 2
- 126 -
To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equation of equilibrium of the moments around point 2 is used:
z
M
2
=0
x 4 x3 + ( x3 x 2 )] = 0 2 42 + (2 1)] = 0 0 = 0 2
M 1 +V 1*( x 2 x1 ) + q * ( x 4 x3 ) * [
22000 + 10000 * (1 0) + 3000 * (4 2) * [
The free-body diagram, shown in Figure 3.2.1.b, is now complete. B.2. Calculation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Discontinuity Point 1
x = x1 0 * m
The location of the reaction force V1 and moment M 1 at point 1 represent a discontinuity, a jump, in both shear force and bending moment diagrams. Consequently, the shear force and the bending moment in the section located in the right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:
V1left := 0 N
shear force at the left of the point bending moment at the left of the point
M1left := 0 N m
V1right
V1left + V1 solve, V1right 10000 N shear force at the right of the point
V1right = 0 + 10000 V1right := 10000N
M1right
M1left + M1 solve, M1right 22000 N m bending moment at the left of the point
M 1right = 0 22000 M1right := 22000 N m
Continuity Interval 1_right to 2_left
x [0, x 2 x1 ] [0,1]
The initial values for this continuity interval are: V0 := V1right V0 = 10000 * N
M0 := M1right M 0 = 22000 * N * m
- 127 -
The distributed loadings, forces and moments, acting in this interval are: N pn( x) := 0 m Nm md ( x) := 0 m zero distributed load
zero distributed moments
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as:
V( x) := V0 + 0
xm
pn( ) d 10000 N
the shear force is constant in this interval
The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained: V2left := V( x) substitute x ,
V2left := 10000 N
1 m 10000.0 N
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8):
V( x) dx m ( x) x M ( x) := M0 + + d 22000 N m + 10000. N x d the bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: M2left := M ( x) substitute x , M2left := 12000 N m Discontinuity Point 2 1 m 12000. N m
x = x 2 1* m
The location of the concentrated force P at the section 2 represents a discontinuity, a jump, in the shear force diagram. Consequently, the shear force and the bending moment in the section located in the right vicinity of section 2 are obtained as:
V2right M2right V2left P V2right M2left M2right 6000 N
12000 N m
- 128 -
Continuity Interval 2_right to 3
x [0, x 3 x 2 ] [0,1]
The initial values for this continuity interval are then calculated as:
V0 := V2right V0 = 6 10 N
3
M0 := M2right M0 = 1.2 10 N m The distributed loadings, forces and moments, acting in this interval are: N pn( x) := 0 m Nm md ( x) := 0 m
no distributed load
no distributed moments
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 3 V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 2 6.0 10 N the shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
V3 := V( x) substitute x , 1 m 6000.0 N
V3 := 6000 N The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 12000 N m + 6000. N x d the bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M3 := M ( x) substitute x
M3 := 6000 N m
1 m 6000. N m
Continuity Interval 3 to 4
x [0, x 4 x3] [0,2]
- 129 -
The initial values for this continuity interval are:

V0 := V3 V0 = 6 10 N
3
M0 := M3 M0 = 6 10 N m The distributed loadings, forces and moments, acting in this interval are:
pn( x) := q
the distributed load q acting in the negative direction
Nm md ( x) := 0 m
no distributed moments
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 3 3 N V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 2 6.0 10 N 3.0 10 x m the shear force varies linearly on this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained: , V4 := V( x) substitute x 2m 0
M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 6000 N m + 6000. N x 1500. N x2 d m
the bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as:
M4 := M ( x) substitute x , 2m 0
Using the shear force and bending moment values calculated above and knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, able us to draw the correct diagrams. They are illustrated in Figure 3.2.1.c.
- 130 -
M 1= 1 F 1=
P= 2 V1=
q = 3 4
Figure 3.2.1.c
Problem 3.2.2 Simple-supported beam Calculate and draw the shear force and moment diagram for the plane beam loaded as shown in Figure 3.2.2.a.
Figure 3.2.2.a A. General Observations A.1. A number of four (4) cross-sections define the continuity intervals of the loading along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the following positions:
- 131 -
x1 := 0 m x2 := 1 m x3 := 2.5 m measured from pinned support of the beam.
x4 := 3.5 m
A.2 The discontinuity points are those where concentrated forces or reaction forces, (refers to forces or moments) act. For the simply supported beam studied they are identified as points 1,2 and 4. A.3. The external system of forces acting in the vertical plane of the beam, is N , a concentrated force composed from an uniformly distributed force q1 := 24000 m N P := 36000 N and a linearly distributed force q 2 ( x ) . m B. Calculations B.1. Construction of the free-body diagram (Figure 3.2.2.b) The pinned support placed at the left end of the beam is replaced with two concentrated reaction forces, one horizontal, F1 , and one vertical,V1 . The roller support located at the left end of the beam is replaced by a force perpendicular on the rolling support, in this case vertical on the beam longitudinal axis. The reaction forces are illustrated in Figure 3.2.2.b and together with the external loading system represent the free-body diagram corresponding to the simply supported beam.
P= 1 F1 V 1 2
q1 3
q2 4 V 4
3
Figure 3.2.2.b
B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces A number of three reactions are required to be calculated and an equal number of equations of equilibrium are available. It can be concluded that the system is statically determinate. First equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the horizontal direction -x):
x
= 0 F1 = 0 * N
no axial force
- 132 -
Second equilibrium equation (all moment in point 4 created by the forces rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):
z
M
4
=0
V1 x4 x1 P x4 x2 ... 0 x3 x2 + q1 x3 x2 + x4 x3 ... 2
2 1 + q1 ( x4 x3) ( x4 x3) 3 2
solve, V1 4 4.6 10 N float, 2
V1 * (3.5 0) 36000 * (3.5 1) + (24000 * (2.5 1) * ( 1 2 + ( * 24000 * (3.5 2.5) * * (3.5 2.5)) = 0 2 3
2 .5 1 + (3.5 2.5)) + 2
V1 = 4.6 10 N Third equilibrium equation (all moment in point 1 created by the forces rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):
z
M
1
=0
V4 x4 x1 + P x2 x1 ... x3 x2 + q1 x3 x2 + x2 x1 ... 2
1 q x x 1 x x + x x + ( ) ( ) ( 3 1) 2 1 4 3 3 4 3
V1 * (3.5 0) 36000 * (3.5 1) + (24000 * (2.5 1) * ( 1 2 + ( * 24000 * (3.5 2.5) * * (3.5 2.5)) = 0 2 3
) (
solve, V4 4 3.8 10 N float, 2
2 .5 1 + (3.5 2.5)) + 2
V4 = 3.8 10 N To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equilibrium equation of forces projected on the vertical axis y is used:
1 V1 P q1 *( x3 x 2 ) * q1 * ( x 4 x3 ) + V4 = 0 2 1 46000 36000 24000 * (2.5 1) * 24000 * (3.5 2.5) = 0 0 = 0 2

y
=0
- 133 -
The free-body diagram, shown in Figure 3.2.1.b, is now complete. B.2. Calculation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Discontinuity Point 1
x = x1 0 * m
The location of the reaction force V1 at point 1 represents a discontinuity, a jump, in the shear force diagram. The shear force and the bending moment in the section located in the right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:
V1left := 0 N
shear force at the left of the point bending moment at the left of the point
4
M1left := 0 N m
V1right := V1left + V1 V1right = 4.6 10 N shear force at the right of the point
M1right := M1left M1right = 0 N m Continuity Interval 1_right to 2_left
bending moment at the right of the point
x [0, x 2 x1 ] [0,1]
The initial values for this continuity interval are: V0 := V1right V0 = 4.6 10 N
M0 := M1right M0 = 0 N m
4
pn( x) := 0 md ( x) := 0
N m Nm m
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 4 V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 2 4.6 10 N the shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
V2left := V ( x) substitute, x V2left := 46000 N 1 m 46000.0 N
- 134 -
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 46000. N x d
the bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M2left := M ( x) substitute x M2left := 46000 N m Discontinuity Point 2 1 m 46000. N m
x = x 2 1* m
The location of the concentrated force P at point 2 represents a discontinuity, a jump, in the shear force diagram. The shear force and the bending moment in the section located in the right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:
V2right := V2left P V2right = 1 10 N
4 4
shear force at the right of the point
M2right := M2left M2right = 4.6 10 N m bending moment at the right of the point Continuity Interval 2_right to 3
x [0, x 3 x 2 ] [0,1.5]
The initial values for this continuity interval are: V0 := V2right V0 = 1 10 N

M0 := M2right M0 = 4.6 10 N m
4 4
pn( x) := q1 md ( x) := 0 Nm m
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 4 4 N V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 2 1.0 10 N 2.4 10 x m The shear force is linear in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
- 135 -
V3 := V( x) substitute x ,
1.5 m 26000.00 N V3 := 26000 N
M ( x) := M0 + V ( x) dx + m ( x) dx 46000 N m + 10000. N x 12000. N x2 d m
The bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M3 := M ( x) substitute x 1.5 m 34000.00 N m M3 := 34000 N m
It is observed that the shear force changes it sign on this interval, and consequently, taking a zero value. The section where the shear force is zero represents a local maximum for this interval. The position of the section where the bending moment has a local maximum is calculated as:
solve, xmax V2right q1 xmax 0 .417 m the left side of the equation float, 3 represents the expression of the shear force on the interval. The position of the crosssection is calculated:
xmax := 0.417 m The expression of the maximum bending moment is obtained by substituting the value x max into the bending moment expression: of xmax 4 Mmax = 4.809 10 N m Mmax := M2right+ q1 xmax 2
Continuity Interval 3 to 4
x [0, x 4 x 3 ] [0,1]

V0 := V3 V0 = 2.6 10 N
4
M0 := M3 M0 = 3.4 10 N m
x pn( x) := q1 1 l34
where l34 := x4 x3 is the length of the interval
- 136 -
Nm md ( x) := 0 m The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as:
2 p ( x) dx float, 2 2.6 104 N 2.4 104 N x .50 x V( x) := V0 + n m m
The shear force is parabolic in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
V4left := V( x) substitute x , 1 m 38000.000 N V4left := 38000 N
3 N x 2 M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx float, 5 34000. N m 26000. N x 24000. .50000 x .16667 m m
The bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: M4left := M ( x) substitute x , 1 m 8.000 10 N m
-2
Note: The moment M 4 left should be zero, but because the numerical error induced by fixing the number of decimals at five (5), a very small value is obtained. Discontinuity Point 4
V4right := V4left + V4 V4right = 0 N
M4right := M4left M4right := 0 N m Using the shear force and bending moment values calculated above and knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are draw as illustrated in Figure 3.2.2.c.
- 137 -
P= 1 F 1= 2 V1 =
q1 3 4
q2 V4 =
Figure 3.2.2.c
Problem 3.2.3 Simple-supported beam with overhang Calculate and draw the shear force and moment diagram for the plane beam loaded as shown in Figure 3.2.3.a.
Figure 3.2.3.a A. General Observations A.1. A number of six (6) cross-sections define the continuity intervals of the loading along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the following positions: x1 := 0 m x2 := 4 m x3 := 6 m x4 := 9 m x5 := 12 m and
- 138 -
x6 := 14 m measured from the left end of the beam. A.2 The discontinuity points are those where concentrated forces or reaction forces, (refers to forces or moments) act. For the studied they are identified as points 2, 4, 5 and 6. A.3. The external system of forces acting in the vertical plane of the beam, is N composed from an uniformly distributed force q := 3000 , a concentrated force m P := 8000 N and a concentrated moment Mext := 24000 N m . B. Calculations B.1. Construction of the free-body diagram (Figure 3.2.3.b) The pinned support placed at section 2 is replaced with two concentrated reaction forces, one horizontal, F2 , and one vertical, V 2 . The roller support located at section 5 of the beam is replaced by a force perpendicular on the rolling support, in this case vertical, V5 , on the beam longitudinal axis. The reaction forces are illustrated in Figure 3.2.3.b and together with the external loading system represent the free-body diagram.
q 1 F2 2 V 2
3
P= 3
M ext = 4 5
V 5
4
Figure 3.2.3.b
B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces A number of three reactions are required to be calculated and an equal number of equations of equilibrium are available. It can be concluded that the system is statically determinate. First equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the horizontal direction -x):
= 0 F1 = 0 * N
no axial force
Second equilibrium equation (all moment in point 5 created by the forces rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):
- 139 -
M
5
=0
q x2 x1
x2 x1
2
+ x5 x2 ...
+ V2 x5 x2 q x3 x2 + P x5 x4 + Mext 3000 * (2 0) * [
x3 x2
2
0 solve, V2 20250 N + x5 x3 ...
64 20 + (12 4)] + V2 * (12 4) 3000 * (6 4) * [ + (12 6)] 2 2 8000 * (12 9) + 24000 = 0 V2 := 20250 N Third equilibrium equation (all moment in point 2 created by the forces rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):
z
M
2
=0
q x2 x1
( ) 2 ( x3 x2) + P ( x4 x2) V5 ( x5 x2) + Mext

+ 24000 = 0
( x2 x1) + q
( x3 x2)
2
...
0 solve, V5 5750 N
3000 * (2 0) * [
20 64 ] 3000 * (6 4) * [ ] 8000 * (9 4) V5 * (12 4) + 2 2

V5 := 5750 N
To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equilibrium equation of forces projected on the vertical axis y is used:
y
=0
q * ( x 3 x 1 ) + V2 P + V5 = 0 3000 * (6 0) + 20250 8000 + 5750 0 = 0 The free-body diagram, shown in Figure 3.2.1.b, is now complete. B.2. Calculation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams Interval 1-2_left

V0 := 0 N
- 140 -
M0 := 0 N m pn( x) := q md ( x) := 0 Nm m
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 3 N V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 2 3.0 10 x m
The shear force is linear in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
V2left := V ( x) substitute, x 4 m 12000.0 N V2left := 12000 N
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 1500. N x2 d m
The bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as:
M2left := M ( x) substitute, x 4 m 24000. N m M2left := 24000 N m
Discontinuity Point 2 V2left + V2 solve, V2right 8250 N

M2left solve, M2right 24000 N m
V2right
M2right
V2right := 8250 N
M2right := 24000 N m
Interval 2right-3 The initial values for this continuity interval are: V0 := V2right
M0 := M2right pn( x) := q
Nm m The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: md ( x) := 0 3 3 N V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 3 8.25 10 N 3.00 10 x m
- 141 -
The shear force is linear in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:
V3 := V ( x) substitute, x 2 m 2250.00 N V3 := 2250 N
M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 24000 N m + 8250. N x 1500. N x2 d m
The bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M3 := M ( x) substitute x Interval 3-4left 2 m 13500. N m M3 := 13500 N m

V0 := V3
V0 = 2.25 10 N M0 = 1.35 10 N m
4
M0 := M3 N pn( x) := 0 m Nm md ( x) := 0 m
The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 3 V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 3 2.25 10 N The shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained: , V4left := V( x) substitute x 3 m 2250.00 N V4left := 2250 N
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 13500 N m + 2250. N x d
The bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M4left := M ( x) substitute x 3 m 6750. N m M4left := 6750 N m
- 142 -
Discontinuity Point 4
V4left P solve, V4right 5750 N V4right := 5750 N
V4right
M4right
M4left solve, M4right 6750 N m
M4right := 6750 N m
Interval 4right-5left
The initial conditions are:

V0 := V4right
V0 = 5.75 10 N
3
M0 = 6.75 10 N m M0 := M4right N pn( x) := 0 m Nm md ( x) := 0 m The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: 3 V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 3 5.75 10 N
The shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained: , V5left := V( x) substitute x 3 m 5750.00 N V5left := 5750 N
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 6750 N m 5750. N x d
The bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M5left := M ( x) substitute x Discontinuity Point 5 V5left + V5 solve, V5right 0 M5left solve, M5right 24000 N m V5right := 0 N M5right := 24000 N m 3 m 24000. N m M5left := 24000 N m
V5right M5right
- 143 -
Interval 5right to 6left

V0 = 0 N
The initial values are: V0 := V5right M0 := M5right N pn( x) := 0 m md ( x) := 0 Nm
M0 = 2.4 10 N m
m The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as: V( x) := V0 + pn( x) dx float, 3 0 The shear force is zero in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained: , V6left := V( x) substitute x 2m 0 V6left := 0 N
The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the formula (3.8): M ( x) := M0 + V( x) dx + m ( x) dx 24000 N m d
The bending moment has a constant variation. The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as: , M6left := M ( x) substitute x Discontinuity Point 6 V6rigt := V6left M6right := M6left + Mext 2 m 24000 N m M6left := 24000 N m
V6rigt = 0 N M6right = 0 N m
Using the shear force and bending moment values calculated above and knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are draw as illustrated in Figure 3.2.3.c.
- 144 -
q 1 F2 2 V2 3
P=
M ext = 6 4 5 V5
Figure 3.2.3.c
Problem 3.2.4 Using the shear force diagram shown in Figure 3.2.4.a, determine: (a) the free body diagram of the beam, (b) the corresponding bending moment diagram and (c) the possible support positions.
Figure 3.2.4.a A. General Observations A.1. Analyzing the variation of the shear force diagram illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.a, it is observed that three (3) intervals of continuity are found. They are described by four (4) sections located at distances: x2 := 3m x3 := 4.5 m x4 := 6 m x1 := 0 m measured from the left end of the beam. - 145 -
A.2 The shear diagram has three jumps indicating the existence of concentrated forces at these locations. They are positioned at point 1, 3 and 4 as illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.b.
V 1.right
V 1.left
V2 V3.left V3.right
V4.right
(a)
V4.left
Figure 3.2.4.b B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram Following the reasoning described in the paragraph A.2 can be concluded the following: (a) in point 1 acts a concentrated vertical force P1 = 18kN . The force is positive orientated; (b) in point 3 operates a negative orientated vertical force P3 = 18kN and (c) in point 4 a positive orientated vertical force P4 = 18kN is found. Note: These conclusions can be made also by interpreting the equation (3.7). The construction of the free-body diagram is made in the following manner: a positive orientated concentrated force P1 = 18kN is placed in 1; the variation of the shear force in the interval 1_right to 2 is linear indicating the existence of a constant loading in this interval (see Table 3.2). Because the value of the shear force decreases towards point 2, the uniform distributed force is negative orientated. The magnitude of the distributed force is calculated by writing the value of the shear force in point 2:
V2 = V1right + q * ( x 2 x1 ) = 0 18 + q * 3 = 0 q = 6kN
the shear force has zero magnitude in the interval 2 to 3_left, indicating that there is not any distributed load in this interval; a negative concentrated force P3 = 18kN acts in point 2; the shear force is constant in the interval 3_right to 4, and consequently, no distributed force acts in this interval;
- 146 -
a concentrated positive orientated force P4 = 18kN is attached to point 4.
The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.c
P3=
P1
Figure 3.2.4.c B.2 Calculation of the Bending Moment Diagram
P4
The moment diagram can be calculated using the formula (3.8) or by using the observation that the integral geometrically represents the area located under the function. This time the second method is used.
M 1 = 0 kN m
M 2 = M 1 + Ashear _ 1 _ 2 0 +
M 3 = M 2 + Ashear _ 2 _ 3
1 * 18 * 3 27 kN m 2 27 + 0 27 kN m
M 4 = M 3 + Ashear _ 3 _ 4 27 18 * 1.5 0 kN m
The bending moment diagram is shown in Figure 3.2.4.d.
M2
Figure 3.2.4.d B.3 Discussion about the possible support configuration
M3
Two vertical supports are necessary to be placed, for the beam to be statically determinate, where the concentrated forces are located. The concentrated forces are future candidates to be reaction forces. Two configurations illustrated in Figures 3.2.4.e and 3.2.4.f are yielding similar shear force and bending moment diagrams. It can be concluded that problem has two possible configurations.
- 147 -
Figure 3.2.4.e
Figure 3.2.4.f It is the configuration shown in Figure 3.2.4.g a real configuration?
Figure 3.2.4.g Hint: To answer calculate the reaction forces, construct the free-body diagram and compare with the free-body diagram shown in Figure 3.2.4.c.
- 148 -
3.3 Proposed Problems Problem 3.3.1 3.3.36 Conduct the following tasks: (a) Draw the free-body diagram, (b) calculate the reaction forces and moments, (c) calculate and draw the shear force and bending moment using method 2.
Figure 3.3.1
Figure 3.3.2
Figure 3.3.3
Figure 3.3.4
Figure 3.3.5
Figure 3.3.6
Figure 3.3.7
Figure 3.3.8
- 149 -
Figure 3.3.9
Figure 3.3.10
Figure 3.3.11
Figure 3.3.12
Figure 3.3.13
Figure 3.3.14
Figure 3.3.15
Figure 3.3.16
- 150 -
Figure 3.3.17
Figure 3.3.18
Figure 3.3.19
Figure 3.3.20
Figure 3.3.21
Figure 3.3.22
Figure 3.3.23
Figure 3.3.24
Figure 3.3.25
Figure 3.3.26
- 151 -
Figure 3.3.27
Figure 3.3.28
Figure 3.3.29
Figure 3.3.30
Figure 3.3.31
Figure 3.3.32
Figure 3.3.33
Figure 3.3.34
Figure 3.3.35
Figure 3.3.36
- 152 -
Problems 3.3.37 and 3.3.38 Calculate the bending moment diagram and discussed the possible free-body diagram related to the shear force diagrams shown in Figures 3.3.37 and 3.3.38.
Figure 3.3.37
Figure 3.3.38
- 153 -
CHAPTER 4 Axial Deformation

4.1 Theoretical Background 4.1.1 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation Definition 4.1
A plane linear member, when subjected to exterior loads and/or change of temperature, undergoes an axial deformation if after the deformation: (a) the axis of the member remains straight; (b) the cross-sections remain plane, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam and do not rotate about the same longitudinal axis after the deformation. Equilibrium Equation
Figure 4.1 Equilibrium of an Elementary Beam Volume The differential relation between the exterior load and the axial internal resultant is obtained from the equilibrium of the elementary volume:
dF ( x) = pt ( x) dx
(4.1)
where p t ( x ) is the distributed loading parallel to the beam longitudinal axis and F (x) is the axial stress resultant . Integrating equation (4.1) the stress resultant force F (x) in a particular cross-section is calculated as:
F ( x) = F0 pt ( ) * d
0 x
(4.2)
- 154 -
where F0 = F ( x = 0) is the value of the axial force at the origin of the integration interval. Strain-Displacement Equation
Figure 4.1 Geometrical Aspects of the Axial Deformation (a) Undeformed Member and (b) Deformed Member The extensional strain y ( x ) along the longitudinal axis of the beam is obtained using
the notation shown in Figure 4.1:
x ( x) = lim x0 (
x * x u ( x + x) u ( x) du ) = lim x 0 [ ]= x x dx
(4.3)
The rest of the generalized strain tensor components, extensional and shear strains, are:
y ( x) = * x ( x) z ( x) = * x ( x)
(4.4) (4.5)
xy = xz = yz = 0
The expression of the generalized strain tensor T is:
(4.6)
x T = yx zx
xy y zy
xz x yz = 0 z 0
0 * x 0
0 0 * x (4.7)
The displacement u( x ) is obtained by integration the differential equation (4.3):
- 155 -
u ( x) = u 0 + x ( x) * dx
0
(4.8)
where u 0 = u ( x = 0) is the displacement at the beginning at the integration interval. The elongation is calculated using equation (4.8) as:
e = u ( L) u (0) = x ( x) * dx
0 L
(4.9)
where L is the total length of the bar.
Constitutive Equation
The constitutive equation reflects the relation between the stress and the strain. If the linear elastic material behavior is considered, applying the Hooks Law, the relation between the normal stress x ( x, y, z ) and extension strain x ( x) is written:
x ( x, y , z ) = E ( x, y , z ) * x ( x )
(4.10)
where E is the modulus of elasticity and is obtained performing tensile tests. Considering the assumption that the cross-section of the bar is a small surface, the variation of the modulus of elasticity E ( x, y, z ) is negligible on this surface, and consequently, the constitutive equation (4.10) is expressed as:
x ( x) = E ( x) * x ( x)
(4.11)
Note: equation (4.11) implies that the normal stress x ( x) varies only along the length of the member, but has a constant value on the entire cross-section. The representation of the normal stress x ( x ) is shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Cross-Section Normal Stress Distribution
- 156 -
Note: equation (4.11) implies that the normal stress x ( x) varies only along the length of the member, but has a constant value on the entire cross-section. The rest of the stress tensor T components are zero:
y ( x) = z ( x) = 0 xy = xz = yz = 0
Consequently, the generalized stress tensor is:
(4.12) (4.13)
x xy xz x T = yx y yz = 0 0 zx zy z
0 0 0 0 0 0 (4.14)
Cross-Section Stress (Internal) Resultants
The following cross-sectional stress (internal) resultants are obtained using the stress distribution expressed by equation (4.11) through (4.13):
F ( x) = x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * A( x)
A A
(4.15)
M y ( x) = z * x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * z * dA = x ( x) * S y
A A
(4.16)
M z ( x) = y * x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * y * dA = x ( x) * S z
A A
(4.17)
The relations between the normal stress x ( x ) and the cross-section resultants F (x) , M y (x) and M z (x) are derived using the notation shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Normal Stress and Stress Resultants (a) Normal Stress and (b) Stress Resultants
- 157 -
If the axes oy and oz of the coordinate system intersect such that the x axis passes through the cross-section centroid, the static moments S y and S z are zero and the
axial force F ( x) remains the only non-zero stress resultant:

F ( x) = x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * dA = x ( x) * A( x)
A A
(4.18) (4.19) (4.20)
M y ( x) = 0 M z ( x) = 0 Then, from equation (4.18) the normal stress x is calculated as:
x ( x) =
F ( x) A( x)
(4.21)
Note: It is concluded that a beam made from a linear elastic material undergoes an axial deformation if the axial force passes through the cross-section centroid.
Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation
The thermal strain was introduced as:
T = * T
(4.22)
where is the thermal expansion coefficient and T is the change in the member temperature. The total elongation strain is the sum of the elongation strain induced by the exterior load action and thermal effects and is expressed as:
x ( x) =
x ( x)
E ( x)
+ ( x ) * T ( x ) =
F ( x) + ( x ) * T ( x ) E ( x ) * A( x )
(4.23)
Then, the total elongation of the member is written as:
e = x ( x ) * dx =
0
L F ( x) * dx + ( x ) * T ( x ) * dx 0 E ( x ) * A( x )
(4.24)
4.1.2 Uniform-Axial Deformation

Definition 4.2
The uniform axial-deformation element is a linear member characterized by: (a) a constant area along the entire length of the member;
- 158 -
(b) is made of a homogeneous elastic material; (c) is subjected to a constant axial force F .
Uniform-axial deformed members (shown in Figure 4.4)
. Figure 4.4 Member Exhibiting Uniform Axial-Deformation Transcribing the requirements of the definition 4.2 the following expressions are obtained:
A( x) = A0 E ( x) = E 0 F ( x) = F0
(4.25) (4.26) (4.27)
Note: Equation (4.27) implies the absence of the distributed load pt ( x) . Rewriting equations (4.21), (4.23) and (4.24) previously obtained for the case of the member with uniform axial-deformation the following equations are obtained:
x( x) =
F ( x) F0 = =0 for axial stress A( x) A0 F0 ( x) x ( x) = x = = 0 for elongation strain E ( x) E 0 * A0

L L
(4.28) (4.29)
e = x ( x ) * dx + ( x ) * T ( x ) * dx = 0 * L + * L * T =
0 0
F0 * L + * L * T = 0 * L + * L * T E 0 * A0
for total elongation
(4.30)
- 159 -
Axial flexibility and stiffness coefficients

k= E 0 * A0 L
the axial stiffness coefficient.
(4.31)
f =
1 L = k E 0 * A0
axial flexibility coefficient
(4.32)
Substituting the equation (4.32) into the total elongation expression (4.30), the total elongation of a bar under uniform-axial deformation is recast as:
e= F0 * L + * L * T = f * F0 + * L * T E 0 * A0
(4.33)
4.1.3 Nonuniform-Axial Deformation If any one of the assumptions contained in definition 4.2 is violated the axial deformation is called nonuniform-axial deformation. The most common cases of nonuniform-axial deformation are: Member with non-homogeneous cross-section; Member with variable Cross-Section; Member loaded along its length.
The formulae described in the section 4.1.1 have to be adapted function of the situation. 4.1.4 Verification of the Members Subjected to Axial Deformation The design formula used is the relationship between maximum normal stress max and the allowable normal stress all :
max all
(4.34)
The formula (4.34) was used for a long period of time in a procedure known as the allowable-stress design. Due to the simplicity of application, this method is still commonly used in United States for the design of steel structures. The allowable normal stress all is defined by limiting the value of the normal stress in the axially deformed member. Dividing the yield stress Y pertinent to the material subjected to axial deformation by a safety factor SF the allowable axial stress is calculated:
all =
Y
SF
(4.35)
- 160 -
The safety factor is greater than one, usually taking values between 2 and 3. The yield stress for different materials is found in Appendix 1.2. 4.2 Solved Problems Problem 4.2.1 A solid brass rod AB and a solid aluminum rod BC are connected together by a rigid coupler of negligible length at B as shown in Figure 4.2.1.a. The diameters and the modulus of elasticity of the two segments are d1 = 65 mm, d2 = 50 mm, E1 = 105 GPa and E1 = 69 GPa, respectively. The system is loaded by two concentrated loads, P B = 180kN and P C = 45kN , acting along the centroidal line of the system at point B and C , respectively . Calculate the axial stress existing in the two rods and the displacement at point B and C. Verify the rod segments.
Figure 4.2.1.a A. General Observations Two axial forces are acting on the rod:
PB := 180 10 N and PC := 45 10 N The areas of the two rod segments are:
d1 * 65 2 3 2 A1 = 3.318 10 mm A1 := 4 4 d2 * 50 2 3 2 A2 = 1.963 10 mm A2 := 4 4 B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The constraint located at point A is replaced by a horizontal reaction H A as shown in Figure 4.2.1.b.
2 2
- 161 -
Figure 4.2.1.b B.2 Reaction Calculation The equation of equilibrium used is the projection of all axial forces on the horizontal axis x :
X =0
HA + PB + PC
0 solve, HA 135000 N
HA := 135000 N
The equilibrium equation contains only one unknown reaction force, H A , and consequently, the system is statically determinate. B.3 The Axial Force Diagram The axial force diagram is drawn in Figure 4.2.1.c.
HA
PB
PC
Figure 4.2.1.c The axial force on the interval AB is a constant tension force F1 := 135 10 N , while on the interval BC is a constant compression force F2 := 45 10 N . It can be concluded that both segments of the rod are uniform-axial deformed members. B.3 Stress and Strain Calculation The stress and strain in the interval AB , where the rod is made of solid brass are obtained as:
3 3
- 162 -
1 :=
F1 A1
1
1.35 * 10 5 N 7 1 = 4.068 10 Pa 3 2 3.318 *10 m
tension stress
4.068 *10 7 4 1 = 3.875 10 1 := 9 E1 105 *10
elongation strain
In a similar manner is calculated the stress and strain pertinent to the interval BC representing the aluminum made rod.
2 := F2 A2 2
0.45 *10 5 N 7 2 = 2.292 10 Pa 3 2 1.963 *10 m
compression stress
2.292 *10 7 4 2 = 3.321 10 2 := 9 E2 69 *10 B.4 Flexibility Coefficients The flexibility coefficients are calculated as:
L1 f1 := E1 A 1
elongation strain
1.5m m f1 = 4.305 10 9 3 2 1.05 *10 Pa * 3.318 *10 m N

11
L2 f2 := E2 A 2
1.0m m f2 = 7.381 10 9 3 2 0.69 * 10 Pa *1.963 * 10 m N

11
B.5 Calculation of the axial displacements The displacement u B of the point B , the right end of the brass segment, is calculated as:
m 4 uB := u0 + f1 F1 0 * m + 4.305 * 10 9 * * 1.35 * 10 5 * N uB = 5.812 10 m N
where the displacement at the origin of the interval u0 := uA and uA := 0 m , because the point is constraint against the horizontal movement. The calculation of the displacement uC implies the knowledge of the displacement of the origin point of the interval BC .
u0 := uB u0 = 5.812 * 10 4 m
The displacement in point C is calculated as:
- 163 -
m uC := u0 + f2 F2 5.81 *10 4 * m 7.381 * 10 9 * * 0.45 * 10 5 * N N

uC = 2.49 10 B.6 Verification of the Rod The verification of the rod segments is conducted as: for the brass segment
4
1 allowable_brass =
y _ brass
SFbrass
4.068 *10 7 Pa < 13.75 *10 7 Pa
ok
where allowable_brass is the brass allowable stress, y _ brass is the brass yield stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and SFbrass is the safety factor . For this calculation Y_brass := 275 10 Pa and SFbrass := 2.0 . for the aluminum segment
6
2 allowable_aluminum =
y _ alu min um
SFalu min um
2.292 *10 7 Pa < 20.5 *10 7 Pa
ok
where allowable_aluminums is the brass allowable stress, y _ alu min ums is the aluminum yield stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and SFalu min um is the safety factor . For this calculation Y_aluminum 410 10 Pa and SFaluminum 2.0 . := := Problem 4.2.2 Two uniform, linearly elastic members are held together at point B and the resulting two-segment rod is attached to rigid supports at ends A and C. A single external load P = 4000 kN is applied at joint B. Member (1) has a length L1 = 2 m, diameter d1 = 120 mm and is made of steel with a modulus of elasticity E1 = 200 GPa. Member (2) has a length L 2 = 1.8 m, diameter d2 = 150 mm and is made of an aluminum alloy with a modulus of elasticity E 2 =75 GPa. Conduct the following tasks: (a) verify the axial stress in both members and (b) calculate the axial displacement at point B.
6
Figure 4.2.2.a - 164 -
A. General Observations The areas of the two rod segments are:
d1 *120 2 4 2 A 1 = 1.131 10 mm A1 := 4 4 d2 *150 2 4 2 A2 = 1.767 10 mm A2 := 4 4

B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The constraint located at point A is replaced by a horizontal reaction H A as shown in Figure 4.2.2.b.
2
Figure 4.2.2.b B.2 Reaction Calculation The equation of equilibrium used is the projection of all axial forces on the horizontal axis x : HA + PB + HC 0 solve, HA PB HC
The equation contains two (2) unknown reaction forces H A and H C . Consequently, the system is a statically indeterminate. An additional equation is necessary. This is equation is geometrical in nature and represents the fact that the total elongation of the beam is zero.
e = uC u A = 0
Considering that the calculation of the displacement starts at point A, uA 0 m and the axial displacement at the end B of the interval AB , representing the steel rod, is calculated as:
- 165 -
uB
L1 uA + F A1 E1 1
substitute F1 , , substitute uA
HA uB 0m
L1
A1 E1
HA
At the left end of the BC interval the axial displacement is expressed as:
substitute uB , substitute F2 , L1 A1 E1 HC HA uC
uC
uB + F A2 E2 2
L2
( A1 E1)
L1
HA +
( A2 E2)
L2
HC
This way the second equation is obtained as: uC 0
and by substituting the flexibility coefficients f 1 and f 2 into the expression of the axial displacement uC the following algebraic system is obtained: HA + PB + HC 0 f1 HA + f2 HC 0 The solutions, representing the two reactions, H A and H C , are found :
f2 P B ( f1 + f2) Find( HA , HC) collect, PB PB f1 ( f1 + f2)
Substituting the numerical data the reaction forces are calculated as: L1 2.0m m f1 = 8.842 10 10 f1 := 2 2 11 1.131 *10 m * 2 * 10 Pa A1 E1 N L2 1.8m m f2 = 1.358 10 9 f2 := 2 2 11 1.767 *10 m * 0.75 * 10 Pa A2 E2 N 1.358 * 10 9 6 * 4 * 10 6 HA = 2.423 10 N HA := PB 10 9 8.842 * 10 + 1.358 * 10 f1 + f2 f2
- 166 -
8.842 * 10 10 6 * 4 * 10 6 HC = 1.577 10 N HC := PB 10 9 8.842 * 10 + 1.358 * 10 f1 + f2 B.3 The Axial Force Diagram The axial force diagram is drawn in Figure 4.2.2.c.
f1
HA
PB
HC
Figure 4.2.2.c The axial force on the interval AB is a constant tension force F1 = 2.423 10 N , while on the interval BC is a constant compression force F2 = 1.577 10 N . It can be concluded that both segments of the rod are uniform-axial deformed members. B.3 Stress and Strain Calculation The stress and strain in the interval AB , where the rod is made of solid steel are obtained as:
1 := F1 A1 1 6 6
2.423 *10 6 N 8 1 = 2.142 10 Pa 2 2 1.131 * 10 m
tension stress
2.142 *10 8 3 1 = 1.071 10 1 := 9 E1 200 *10
elongation strain
In a similar manner is calculated the stress and strain pertinent to the interval BC representing the aluminum made rod.
2 := F2 A2 2 E2
1.577 *10 6 N 7 2 = 8.926 10 Pa 2 2 1.767 * 10 m 8.926 *10 7 3 2 = 1.19 10 9 75 *10
compression stress
2 :=
elongation strain
B.4 Calculation of the axial displacement The displacement u B of the point B , the right end of the steel segment, is calculated:
- 167 -
m uB := u0 + f1 F1 0 * m + 8.842 * 10 10 * * 2.423 * 10 6 * N N
uB = 2.142 10 m where the displacement at the origin of the interval u0 := uA and uA := 0 m , because the point is constraint against the horizontal movement. B.5 Verification of the Rod The verification of the rod segments is conducted as: for the steel segment
3
1 allowable_steel =
y _ steel
SFsteel
2.142 * 10 8 Pa < 2.667 * 10 8 Pa
ok
where allowable_brass is the brass allowable stress, y _ brass is the brass yield stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and is SFsteel the safety factor . For this calculation Y_steel := 400 10 Pa and SFsteel := 1.5 . for the aluminum segment
6
2 allowable_aluminum =
y _ alu min um
SFalu min um
8.926 *10 7 Pa < 1.1 *10 8 Pa ok
where allowable_aluminums is the brass allowable stress, y _ alu min ums is the aluminum yield stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and SF is the safety factor . For this calculation Y_aluminum 275 10 Pa and SFaluminum 2.5 . := := Problem 4.2.3 A rigid beam AB, shown in Figure 4.2.3.a, is supported by two vertical rods made of steel with a modulus of elasticity E=200 GPa. The support rod located at the end A has a diameter d1=25 mm. The weight of the beam AB is negligible and is loaded at point C with a concentrated force P = 60 kN. Calculated: (a) the diameter, d2, of the hanger located at the end B, considering that the relation between the vertical displacement at the ends of the beam u B = 2 * u A , (b) under same condition the vertical displacement in node C, (c) if the hanger located at end B of the rigid beam has a diameter d2=20 mm, what should be the position of the concentrated load P for relation u B = u A to be true, and (d) the axial stresses in the hangers considering the conditions stipulated in the previous question.
6
- 168 -
A. General Observations A.1 The steel rod (1) has a length L1 := 3 m and diameter d1 := 25 mm, while for the steel rod (2) only the length is known L2 := 2 m . Both rods are made of steel with a modulus of elasticity of steel Esteel := 200 10 Pa .
9
Figure 4.2.3.a A.2 The vertical concentrated force P := 60 10 N is located at point C at a distance of a := 1 m from the left end. The total distance in-between the rigid beam supports is L := 3 m , while the distance from the application point C to point B is b = 2 m .
3
B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The rigid beam AB is supported at ends A and B by two steel rods which are playing the supporting role for the beam. Sectioning the rods and replacing them by two corresponding axial forces V A and V B , the free-body diagram of the system is obtained as shown in Figure 4.2.3.b. B.2 Reactions Calculation Two moment equations are written:
M = 0
B
VA L P b
0 solve, VA P
2m b 4 60 *10 3 N * VA = 4 10 N 3m L
- 169 -
M = 0
A
VB l + P a
0 solve, VB P
1m a 4 60 *10 3 N * VB = 2 10 N 3m l
Figure 4.2.3.b The two equilibrium equations are containing two unknowns, the forces V A and V B , and consequently, the system is statically determinate. The verification of the reaction forces is done using the equilibrium equation of the projection of the forces on the vertical direction:
Y = 0
V A P + V B = 0 4 *10 4 6 *10 4 + 2 *10 4 = 0 0 = 0
B.3 Calculation required by question (a) The axial forces in the rods are tension type forces:
F1 VA F1 = 4 10 N
4
F2
VB F2 = 2 10 N
Because the axial forces in the rods and they have constant areas, both rods are uniform-axial deformed members. The flexibility coefficients are obtained as: L1 A1 Esteel
f1
- 170 -
f2
L2 A2 Esteel
The geometrical condition required is: 2 uA uB substitute uA , substitute uB , f1 F1 2 f1 F1 f2 F2 f2 F2 F1 0 solve, f2 2 f1 F2
L2
d 2 2 4
L1
b L
d 2 P a 1 L 4
1 2 1 2 ( L1 b L2 a) d1 2L b simplify ( 1 ) solve, d2 1 1 2 2 ( L1 b L2 a) d1 ( 2 L b) 1
Because the rod diameter is always a positive value, from the two above solutions only the positive value is a valid solution. Consequently, the diameter of the rod (2) is calculated as: 1 2 L2 a 1 1 * * * d1 d2 := 2 L1 b L2 a d1 L1 b 2 L1 b 2 d2 = 10.21 mm
B.4 Calculations required by question (b) The vertical displacement uC is composed from two components: one elastic and equal with the vertical displacement u A and other rigid induced by the rigid rotation of the beam in the vertical plane. The elastic vertical displacement u A is calculated:
m 3 uA := f1 F1 3.056 *10 8 * 4 * 10 4 N uA = 1.222 10 m N

L1 3m m is where f1 := f1 = 3.056 10 8 4 2 11 4.909 *10 m * 2 *10 Pa A1 Esteel N the flexibility coefficient of the rod (1). The vertical displacement uC is obtained:
uC := uA + uB uA 1.222 *10 3 3 3 uC = 1.63 10 m a 1.222 *10 + 3 L
- 171 -
B.5 Calculations required by question (c) The geometrical condition imposed is written as: uA uB substitute uA , substitute uB , f1 F1 f F f F f2 F2 1 1 2 2
P
substitute F1 , f1 F1 f2 F2 0 , substitute F2
La L ( L a) a f1 P f2 P a L L P L
0 solve, a
f1 L f1 + f2
The flexibility coefficient of the rod (2) is calculated considering that the rod diameter is d2 := 20 mm: d2 * 20 2 2 A2 = 314.159 mm A2 := 4 4 L2 2m m f2 = 3.183 10 8 f2 := 4 2 11 3.14159 *10 m * 2 *10 Pa N A2 Esteel The position of the concentrated force measured from point A substituting the previously calculated flexibility coefficients: f1 3.056 * 10 8 * 3m a = 1.469 m a := L 3.056 * 10 8 + 3.183 * 10 8 f1 + f2 is obtained by
2
B.6 Calculations required by the question (d) The axial forces in the hangers are: F1 := P F2 := P
4 3m 1.469m La 6 *10 4 N * F1 = 3.061 10 N 3m L
for rod (1)
1.469m a 4 6 *10 4 N * F2 = 2.939 10 N 3m L
for rod (2)
The axial stresses are obtained: 3.061 *10 4 N 7 1 = 6.236 10 Pa 1 := -4 2 4.909 *10 m A1 F1
tension stress in rod (1)
- 172 -
2.939 *10 4 N 7 2 = 9.354 10 Pa 2 := -4 2 3.142 *10 m A2 B.7 Verification of the rods
F2
tension stress in rod (2)
Considering that the steel yielding stress and the safety coefficient employed are Y_steel := 250 10 Pa and SFsteel := 2.5 , respectively, the allowable steel stress is calculated as: Y_steel 2.5 * 10 8 Pa 8 allwable_steel= 1 10 Pa allwable_steel:= 2.5 SFsteel Consequently,
6
1 = 6.236 *10 7 Pa < allowable _ steel = 10 8 Pa

2 = 9.354 * 10 7 Pa < allowable _ steel = 10 8 Pa
Problem 4.2.4
the rod (1) is ok the rod (2) is ok
The system shown in Figure 4.2.4.a is composed of a rigid beam AD, pinned into the wall at point A, and two unequal linear elastic rods, BE and CF, made of steel with a modulus of elasticity E1 = E 2 = 2 * 1011 Pa . The steel rods lengths and areas are L1 = 2.0 m and L2 = 1.3 m , and, A1 = 6.0 cm 2 and A2 = 3.0 cm 2 , respectively. The system is loaded with by vertical force P acting at point D. The steel rods and force P locations are determined by the following distances measured from point A: a = 1.5 m , b = 2.5 m and c = 4.0 m , respectively. What is the allowable force Pall supported by the system if the allowable normal stress for steel is all = 2.1 * 10 8 Pa .
Figure 4.2.4.a
- 173 -
A. General Observations The system illustrated in Figure 4.2.4.a is geometrical defined by the data contained in the text. B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The rigid beam AD is supported at the ends B and C by two steel rods, which are playing the supporting role for the beam, together with the pinned support located at point A . Sectioning the rods and replacing them by two corresponding axial forces F1 and F2 , and substituting the constraints introduced by the pinned support by its corresponding reaction forces, H A and V A , the free-body diagram of the system is obtained and illustrated in Figure 4.2.4.b.
Figure 4.2.4.b B.2 Reactions Calculation The following equilibrium equations are written:
F
F
A
=0 =0
z
HA = 0
V A + F1 + F2 P = 0
no axial force
=0
F1 * a F2 * b + P * c = 0
The last two equilibrium equations contain three unknown reaction forces F1 , F2 and V A . The system is statically indeterminate. In order to find these unknown quantities one additional equation is necessary. This equation is obtained from the deformation compatibility condition schematically described in Figure 4.2.4.c.
- 174 -
Because the beam AD is rigid, purely geometric relations between the rod elongations, e2 and e2 , and the rotation angle are written as:
e1 = a * e2 = b *
Figure 4.2.4.c Using the elongation expressions the forces in the rods are calculated as:
F1 =
1 N * a * = k1 * a * 6 * 10 7 * 1.5m * 9 * 10 7 N * f1 m 1 N * b * = k 2 * b * 4.615 * 10 7 * 2.5m * 6.923 * 10 7 N * f2 m
F2 =
where the stiffness coefficients, k1 and k 2 , are calculated from the geometrical and material properties characteristics of the rods as: k1 := E1 A1 2 *1011 Pa * 6 * 10 4 N k1 = 6 107 2.0m m L1 E2 A2 2 *1011 Pa * 3 * 10 4 N k2 = 4.615 107 1.3m m L2
k2 :=
Substituting the expressions of the rod forces into the last two equilibrium equations the three original unknowns, F1 , F2 and V A , are replaced with two unknowns, V A and . The equilibrium equations are then written as: Given VA + k1 a + k2 b P k1 a k2 b + P c
2 2
0 0
Solving the algebraic system, the two unknowns are found as:
- 175 -
1.069 P P Find( VA , ) float, 4 -8 1.055 10 ( Pa m2)
The axial forces in the rods are calculated:
substitute , F1 k1 a float, 4
substitute , F2 k2 b float, 5
1.055 10
P Pa m F 1
2
.9495 P
1.055 10
P Pa m F 2
2
1.1199 P
To find the force P producing an allowable stress all in the rods the following equations are written:
substitute F1 , A1 all F1 solve, P float, 4 P1_all substitute F2 , A2 all F2 solve, P float, 4 P2 The allowable force P for the entire system is: Pall := min P1 , P2 min(1.327 * 10 5 N ,5.626 * 10 4 N ) Pall = 5.626 10 N The vertical displacements at point B and C are then calculated: substitute P1_all , 1 P k1 1_all float, 3 1.327 10 N uB
5
0.9495 P 1.327 10 Pa m
5 2
1.327 10 N
for rod (1)
1.1199 P 5.626 10 Pa m
4 2
5.626 10 N
for rod (2)
uB
( 2.21 10-3) N
( Pa m) uB 2.21 10 m
3
- 176 -
uC
substitute P2_all , 1 P k1 2_all float, 3
5.626 10 N uC
( 9.38 10-4) N
( Pa m) uC 9.38 10
4
Problem 4.2.5 An axial load P is applied to a tapered circular rod of length L as shown in Figure 4.2.5.a. The variation of the rod radius along its length is expressed as:
r ( x ) = r0 * (
x 1+ L
where r0 = r (0) is the radius at the left end cross-section. Symbolically express: (a) the axial stress ( x ) , (b) the elongation strain (x ) and (c) the total elongation e . Apply the above obtain expressions for the case when where P = 9 kN, L = 2.50 m, r0 = 0.50 m and the rod is made of an aluminum alloy for which E = 69 GPa.
Figure 4.2.5.a A. General Observations The tapered aluminum rod is subjected to a non-uniform axial deformation, because the area is not constant along the length of the beam. The variation of the area along its axis is expressed as:
A( x ) = * r ( x ) 2 = * r0 * (
2
L 2 L 2 ) = A0 * ( ) L+ x L+ x
where A0 is the area representing the cross-section at the left end of the rod (x=0).
- 177 -
B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 4.2.5.b.
Figure 4.2.5.b B.2 Reaction Calculation The constraint located at the left end of the beam is replaced by a horizontal concentrated reaction force H A . The reaction force H A is calculated using the equilibrium equation involving the horizontal projection of all forces.
X =0
HA + P = 0
H A = P
The system is statically determinate. B.3 Expression of the Axial Stress The axial force in the rod is constant and represents a tension force:
F ( x) = P
The general expression of the axial stress in the rod is obtained as:
F ( x) P P x = = = 0 * (1 + ) 2 A( x ) A( x ) A * ( L ) 2 L 0 L+ x where 0 is the axial stress in the cross-section located at the left end of the rod.
( x) =
B.4 Expression of the Axial Strain
( x) =
( x)
E ( x)
0 * (1 + ) 2
E
x L
= 0 * (1 +
x 2 ) L
where 0 is the axial stress in the cross-section located at the left end of the rod.
- 178 -
B.5 Expression of the Rod Total Elongation The total elongation is obtained as:
2 x 0 1 + dx exp( 1) L 0
L
7 3
0 L
B.6 Numerical Application The following data is substituted in the above obtained expressions:
P := 9 10 N
3
r0 := 0.5 m
L := 2.5 m
E := 69 10 Pa
The reaction force is: HA := P HA = 9 10 N

3
The area at the left end cross-section: A0 := r0

2
A0 = 0.785 m
The axial stress and elongation strain at the left end cross-section are:
0 := P A0
0 = 1.146 10 Pa
0 :=
0 E
0 = 1.661 10
The variation of the axial stress and elongation strain are calculated in a number of twenty-one sections: i := 0 .. 20 L xi := i 20
2 xi i := 0 1 + L 2 xi i := 0 1 + L
The maximum values are calculated in the right end cross-section (x = L): max := 20 max = 4.584 10 Pa The total elongation of the rod is: 7 emax := 0 L 3 emax = 9.688 10
7
max := 20 max = 6.643 10
- 179 -
The variation of the axial stress is illustrated in Figure 4.2.5.c.

5 .10 4.6 .10 4.2 .10 3.8 .10 3.4 .10 2.6 .10 2.2 .10 1.8 .10 1.4 .10
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 .10
1 .10
0.25 0.5 0.75
1.25 1.5 1.75 x
2.25 2.5
Figure 4.2.5.c Problem 4.2.6 A magnesium-alloy rod (Emag = 45 GPa) of diameter dm = 30 mm is encased by a brass tube (Ebra = 100 GPa) with outer diameter db. Both bars have an equal length L = 500 mm. An axial load P = 40 kN is applied to the resulting bimetallic rod. Assuming that that the magnesium rod and the brass tube are securely bonded to each other calculate: (a) the outer diameter db of the tube, if three fourths of the load P is carried by the magnesium rod and one fourth by the brass tube and (b) the total elongation of the bimetallic rod. The bimetallic rod is illustrated in Figure 4.2.6. A. General Observations A.1 It is assumed, due to the bondage between the materials, that the deformation at the right end cross-section of the bimetallic rod is equal for both materials. A.2 The reaction force located at the left end of the rod is not necessary to be calculated, because the distribution of the external force P in-between the magnesium and brass cross-section is established. Fmag := Fbra := 1 P 4 3 P 4 Fmag = 1 10 N Fbra = 3 10 N
4 4
for magnesium
for brass
- 180 -
Note: It can be remarked that the bimetallic rod it is statically determined system, but because the modulus of elasticity is not constant for the entire length of the rod, the rod is subjected to a nonuniform-axial deformation.
Figure 4.2.6 B. Calculations B.1 Calculation of the brass exterior diameter d b The equality of the deformation at the right end of the bimetallic rod is:
umag _ end = ubra _ end
Using the flexibility coefficients f mag and f bra , corresponding to magnesium and brass rods the displacements equality is written as:
f mag * Fmag = f bra *F bra
where f mag =
L L and f bra = . E bra * Abra E mag * Amag
Substituting the forces and the flexibility coefficients into the above equation, the expression of the brass area is obtained: L 1 P Emag Amag 4 Amag 3 L P solve, Abra 3 Emag Ebra Abra 4 Ebra
The area of the magnesium rod is calculated as:
- 181 -
dm * 30 2 2 Amag = 706.858 mm Amag := 4 4 and consequently, the area of the brass rod is obtained: Emag Abra := 3 Amag Ebra 45 * 10 9 Pa 3* * 0.706858 * 10 3 m 2 100 * 10 9 Pa Abra = 954.259 mm
2
The exterior diameter of the brass tube is calculated from the following equation: db dm 4
Abra
solve, db 45.990 mm float, 5 45.990 mm
db := 45.990 mm because only the positive value makes sense. B.2 Calculation of total elongation The total elongation is equal to the displacement of the either material calculated at the right end of the rod. The calculation is conducted using the data pertinent for magnesium and is also verified using the brass data.
e := umag_end umag_end := fmag Fmag
0.5m L m fmag = 1.572 10 8 fmag := 9 3 2 45 * 10 Pa * 0.706858 * 10 m Emag Amag N umag_end = 1.572 10 e = 1.572 10
4
4
The verification using brass:

L 0.5m m fbra = 5.24 10 9 fbra := 9 3 2 100 * 10 Pa * 0.954259 * 10 m Ebra Abra N
ubra_end := fbra Fbra
ubra_end = 1.572 10
- 182 -
Note: It can be remarked that the deformation of both materials is 1.572*10-4 m and, this way, the geometrical condition imposed is also verified numerically. Problem 4.2.7 A uniform circular cylinder of diameter d and length L is made of a material with modulus of elasticity E. It is fixed to a rigid wall at end A and subjected to a distributed external axial loading of magnitude p(x) per unit length, as shown in Figure 4.2.7.a. The axial stress, ( x ) , varies linearly with x as shown in Figure 4.2.7.b. Determine: (a) the expression for the distributed loading, p(x) and (b) the expression for the axial displacement, u(x), of the cross section.
Figure 4.2.7 A. General Observations A.1 The member is subjected to a nonuniform-axial deformation and it is statically determinate system. A.2 The axial stress has the following expression (see Figure 4.2.7): ( x) 0 1
x L
B. Calculations The horizontal reaction force H A is calculated as: HA 0 A The axial force pertinent to a particular cross-section is obtained from the equilibrium as: HA p ( ) d 0
x
F ( x)
0 A p ( ) d 0
- 183 -
The axial stress is expressed: HA p ( ) d 0 A

x
( x)
F ( x) A
p ( ) d 0 A
Comparing the above expression with the expression given by the problem the following equation is written: p ( ) d 0 A p ( ) d 0 Consequently, 0 A L
x x
x L
and after the algebraic manipulation the integral becomes:
0 A
x L
p ( x)
It can be concluded that the linear variation of the axial stress is induced by a constant axially applied load. Problem 4.2.8 Two rods are stress-free when welded together at point B and welded to two rigid walls at points A and C . The geometrical and material characteristics of the two rods are illustrated in Figure 4.2.8.a. Subsequently, rod (1) and rod (2) are heated by an amount T1 and T2 , respectively from their initial installation temperature. Determine an expression for the axial forces induced in each rod by the change in temperatures.
Figure 4.2.8.a - 184 -
A. General Observations A.1 The rods have the same modulus of elasticity E , but different expansion coefficients 1 and 2 . A.2 It can be remarked the absence of any external load and the existence of a change in temperature B. Calculations B.1 Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 4.2.8.b.
Figure 4.2.8.b B.2 Reaction Calculation The constraints located at the left and right end points, A and C , of the member are replaced by two horizontal reaction forces, H A and H C , respectively. The following equilibrium equation is written:
X =0
H A + HC = 0
H A = H .C
The system is statically indeterminate and in order to calculate the reaction forces an additional equation is necessary. This equation is the fact that the total elongation e is zero:
e =u C u A = 0 The expression of the displacements u B and uC are:
u B = u A + f 1 * F1 + 1 * L1 * T1
uC = u B + f 2 * F2 + 2 * L2 * T2 = u A + f1 * F1 + f 2 * F2 + 1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2
- 185 -
where
f1 = L1 L2 and f 2 = are the flexibility coefficients E1 * A1 E 2 * A2
The axial forces in the rods are:

F 1( x ) = H A and F 2( x ) = H A
The elongation is calculated as:

e = u C u A = f 1 * F1 + f 2 * F2 + 1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2 =
= ( f 1 + f 2 ) * H A + 1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2 From the condition imposing that the total elongation to be zero, the reaction force H A is obtained:
HA =
1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2
f1 + f 2
Consequently, the reaction force H C is:

HC =
1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2
f1 + f 2
and the forces ion the rods are:
F 1( x ) = F 2( x ) =
1 * L1 * T1 + 2 * L2 * T2
f1 + f 2
4.3 Proposed Problems Problem 4.3.2 The three-part axially loaded member, shown in Figure 4.3.2, consists of a tubular segment (1) with outer diameter d o1 = 32mm and inner diameter d i1 = 22mm , a solid circular rod segment (2) with diameter d 2 = 32mm and a third solid circular rod segment (3) with diameter d 3 = 22mm .
Figure 4.3.2
- 186 -
All three applied loads shown are acting along the centroidal axis of the members. Considering that the rigid couplers have a negligible length determine: (a) the axial stresses in each one of the three respective segments, (b) the displacements in points B, C and D if all segments have equal lengths L1 = L2 = L3 = 0.50 m and the modulus of elasticity of the material is E = 21000MPa . Problem 4.3.3 The diameter of the central one-third of a 50 mm diameter steel rod is reduced to 20 mm, forming a three-segment rod, as shown in Figure 4.3.3. For the loading shown, determine the displacements of the rod points B, C and D, respectively. The rod is made of a material which has the modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa.
Figure 4.3.3 Problem 4.3.4 A column in a two-story building is fabricated from square structural steel tubing having a modulus of elasticity E = 210 GPa. The cross-sectional dimensions of the two segments are shown in Figure 4.3.4. Two axial loads acting along the centroidal axis of the column are applied to the column at levels A and B. Calculate: (a) the axial stress both segments of the column and (b) the total shortening of the column length
Figure 4.3.4
- 187 -
Problem 4.3.5 A three-segment stepped aluminum-alloy column is subjected to the vertical axial loads shown in Figure 4.3.5 The cross-sectional areas of the segments are A1 =3870 mm2, A2 =5810 mm2 and A3 =9035 mm2, respectively. The material modulus of elasticity is E = 69 GPa. Calculate: (a) the axial stresses in all three segments and (b) the vertical displacement of the column at nodes A, B and C under the given loading system.
Figure 4.3.5 Problem 4.3.6 A uniform rod is subjected to three axial loads acting as shown in Figure 4.3.6 and is made of a material with a modulus of elasticity E = 70 GPa. What is the minimum allowable diameter of the cylindrical rod if the displacement at the right end D and the maximum axial stress in the rod can not excide 5 mm and 80 MPa, respectively?
Figure 4.3.6 - 188 -
Problem 4.3.7 A 1.2 in diameter aluminum-alloy hangar, illustrated in Figure 4.3.7, is supported by a steel pipe with an inside diameter of d i =75 mm. The moduli of elasticity for the steel pipe and hanger are Esteel = 210 10 3 MPa and Ealuminum = 69 10 3 MPa, respectively. Determine the thickness of the steel pipe if the maximum axial displacement at the node C is 2.5 mm.
Figure 4.3.7 Problem 4.3.8 A 3.60 m rigid beam AB that weighs 0.80 kN supports an air conditioner that weighs Wair=4.45 kN. The beam is supported by hanger rods (1) and (2) located at its ends as shown in Figure 4.3.8.
Figure 4.3.8 - 189 -
Conduct the following calculations: (a) if the diameter of rod (1) is 95 mm what is the stress in the rod? (b) if the stress in rod (2) is to be the same as the stress in rod (1), what should the diameter of rod (2)? (c) what are the downward displacements at the ends of the rigid beam if the rods length are L1 = L2 = 1.80 m and they are made of steel with a modulus of elasticity E =210 103 MPa? Problem 4.3.9 A hanger rod CD is attached to a rigid beam AB. The beam is supported at its ends by two hanger rods. Assuming that all tree hangers are identical and are made from the same material, calculate: (a) the axial stress in all tree hangers, (b) the vertical displacement of the points A, B, C and D.
Figure 4.3.9 Problem 4.3.10 A commercial sign of weight W is supported by a structural system comprised from a rigid beam AB and a wire CD, as shown in Figure 4.3.10. The rigid beam has a negligible weight, while the wire has length L, cross-sectional area A, and modulus of elasticity E. Assuming that the attachment pin D is directly located above pin A, and when there is no load acting on the beam, the beam is in a perfect horizontal position calculate the following: (a) the axial stress in the wire CD when the sign is attached at points B and C of the beam, (b) the vertical displacement in point C of the beam.
- 190 -
Figure 4.3.10 Problem 4.3.11 The inclined rod AB, shown in Figure 4.3.12, is pinned to a fixed support at A and is pinned at the end B to a block that is forced to move only horizontally when the load P is applied. Determine: (a) an expression for the axial stress in the inclined rod as a function of P, L, E, A, and the angle , (b) an expression for the horizontal displacement at the end B.
Figure 4.3.11 Problem 4.3.12 A bimetallic bar is made by bonding together two homogeneous rectangular bars, each having a width b, length L and moduli of elasticity of the bars are E1 and E2, respectively. An axial force P is applied to the ends of the bimetallic bar at location (y= yp, z = 0) such that the bar undergoes an axial deformation only. Assuming the following data: L = 1.5 m, b = 50 mm, t1 = 25 mm, t2 = 15 mm, E1 = 70 GPa, E2 = 210 GPa and P = 48 kN. Calculate: (a) the normal stress in each material, (b) the value of yp, (c) the elongation of the bar.
- 191 -
Figure 4.3.12 Problem 4.3.13 A bimetallic bar, shown in Figure 4.3.13, undergoes an axial deformation. The bar has the following geometrical and material characteristics: L = 2.55 m, b = 50 mm and h1 = h2 = 1.50 mm and E1=210 GPa. Calculate: (a) the modulus of elasticity E2 if the load P is applied at 10 mm, and (b) the total elongation of the bar for a load of P = 9 kN.
Figure 4.3.13 Problem 4.3.14 A steel pipe is filled with concrete, and the resulting column is subjected to a compressive load P = 360 kN. The pipe has an outer diameter of 325 mm and an inside diameter of 305 mm. The elastic moduli of the steel and concrete are: Estel = 210 GPa and Econc = 25 GPa. Determine: (a) the stress in the steel and the stress in the concrete due to this loading, (b) the shortening of the column if its initial length is L = 3.70 m, (Ignore- radial expansion of the concrete and steel due to Poisson's ratio effect.)
- 192 -
Figure 4.3.14 Problem 4.3.15 A homogenous rod of length L and elasticity modulus E is a conical frustum with diameter d(x) that varies linearly from d0 at one end to 2*d0 at the other end, with d0 << L. An axial load P is applied to the rod, as shown in Figure 4.3.15. Determine analytical expressions for: (a) the stress distribution, ( x ) , on an arbitrary cross section and (b) the elongation of the rod, e(x) .
Figure 4.3.15 Problem 4.3.16 A uniform circular cylinder of diameter d and length L is made of a material with modulus of elasticity E and specific weight . It hangs from a rigid ceiling as shown in Figure 4.3.16. Determine: (a) the expression of the axial stress ( x ) , (b) the expression of the strain ( x ) , (c) the expression of the
- 193 -
displacement u( x ) and (d) the compression force necessary to be applied in order to return the bar at its initial length.
Figure 4.3.16 Problem 4.3.17 A steel pipe with outer diameter do = 50 mm, and inner diameter di = 38 mm and a solid aluminum-alloy rod of diameter d = 19 mm form a three-segment system that undergoes axial deformation due to a single external load PC = 55 Kn acting on a collar at point C, as shown in Figure 4.3.17. Considering the following data: L1 = L2 = 0.75m, L3 = 1.20 m, E1 = 210 GPa and E2 = E3 = 69 GPa, calculate: (a) the axial stresses induced in all three segments and (b) determine the axial displacement at points B and C.
Figure 4.3.17 Problem 4.3.18 A three-segment rod is attached to rigid supports at ends A and D and is subjected to equal and opposite external loads P at nodes B and C, as shown in Figure 4.3.18. The rod is homogeneous and linearly elastic, with modulus of elasticity E. Assuming A1 =
- 194 -
A3 = A and A2 = 2A, L1 = 2L and L2 = L3 = L, calculate: (a) the axial stresses in all tree segments and (b) the horizontal displacements at nodes B and C, respectively.
Figure 4.3.18 Problem 4.3.19 A rigid beam AD, supported by a pin at its end point D and attached by the two vertical steel rods at points A and C, is loaded by a vertical load P at point B. Neglecting the weight of the beam and assuming that the support rods are stress-free when P = 0, calculate: (a) the forces F1 and F2 in the support rods after load P is applied, (b) the deformation of the supporting and (c) the expressions previously obtained if A1 = A2 = 500 mm 2 , L1 = 1m, L2 = 2m , E1 = E2 = 210 GPa, P = 50 kN, a = 0.50 m and b = 1.5 m.
Figure 4.3.19 Problem 4.3.20 A rigid beam AD, shown in Figure 4.3.20, is supported by a smooth pin at B and by two vertical rods attached to the beam at points and C. Neglecting the weight of the beam and assuming that the rods are stress-free when P = 0. Considering that A1 = 650 mm2, A2 = 325 mm2, L1 = L2 = 1.25 m, a = 0.60 m, b = 1.25m, E1 = E2 = 69 GPa
- 195 -
and P = 22.70 kN, determine: (a) the axial forces in the support rods, (b) determine the axial stress in each support and (c) calculate the elongation of the support rods.
Figure 4.3.20 Problem 4.3.21 A rigid beam AD, shown in Figure 4.3.21, is supported by three identical vertical rods that are attached to the beam at points A, C, and D and loaded in node B with a vertical concentrated load P. Assuming that A = 650 mm2, L = 1.50 m, a = 0.50 m, b = 1.00 m, c = 1.50 m, E = 210 GPa and P = 45.5 kN, calculate: (a) the axial forces in the support rods and (b) the vertical displacements at nodes A, B, C and D.
Figure 4.3.21 Problem 4.3.22 The rod composed from two segments as shown in Figure 4.3.22, is attached to rigid walls at A and C. Determine expressions for the stresses pertinent to both segments resulting from a uniform temperature increase T of the entire rod. Numerical
- 196 -
application: A1 = 1000 mm2, A2 = 1500 mm2, L1 = 2 m, L2 = 1.5 m, E1 = 210 Gpa, E2 = 120 GPa, 1 = 12106 and 2 = 8.0106 and T = 30 o C .
Figure 4.3.22 Problem 4.3.23 A three-segment rod shown in Figure 4.3.23 is rigidly attached to walls at points A and D. Subsequently, the middle segment is heated by an amount, while the segments (1) and (3) are kept at their original temperature. Using the notation shown in Figure 4.3.23 and considering the system free at stress at the installation, calculate the stresses in the segments and the axial displacements at points B and C.
Figure 4.3.23 Problem 4.3.24 A steel pipe with outer diameter do, and inner diameter di and a solid aluminum-alloy rod of diameter d form a three-segment system as shown in Figure 4.3.24. The system is considered stress free when is welded to the rigid supports at points A and D. The installation temperature Tinstallation = 60 0 F is recorded. Subsequently, the aluminum rod is cooled by 100F ( T2 = T3 = 100 0 F ), while the steel pipe is held at the initial temperature (T1 = 0 0 F ) . Assuming do = 50 mm, di = 38 mm, d = 19 mm, L1 = 1.25 m, L2 = L3= 0.75 m, E1 = E3 = 210 GPa, E2 = 69 GPa, 1 = 3 = 6.5106 and 2 = 13.1106.
- 197 -
Figure 4.3.24 Problem 4.3.25 The mechanical system shown in Figure 4.3.25 is composed from two identical steel rods (A = 40 mm2, E = 200 GPa, = 12.0106) and a "rigid" beam AC. The beam is supported by a smooth pin at B. Assuming the two rods stress-free after installation, determine: (a) the axial stresses induced in rods if their temperature is decreased by 50C and (b) the small angle through which the beam AC would rotate due to this temperature change.
Figure 4.3.25 Problem 4.3.26 The steel rod of diameter 20 mm is held without any initial stresses between two rigid walls as illustrated in Figure 4.3.26. Determine the temperature drop T at which the stress in the rod reaches 200 MPa. Use for the steel E=200 GPa and = 12.0106.
Figure 4.3.26
- 198 -
Problem 4.3.27 The bar AB, shown in Figure 4.3.27, is held between rigid supports and heated nonuniformly in such a manner that the temperature increase T at distance x from end A is given by the expression T (x) = T1*(x/L)2, where T1 is the increase in temperature at end B of the bar. Obtain a formula for the compressive stress in the bar. (Assume that bar has a length L and is made of a material with modulus of elasticity E and coefficient of thermal expansion .)
Figure 4.3.27 Problem 4.3.28 The copper bar AB of length 1.00 m is placed in position shown in figure 4.3.28 at room temperature. A gap of 0.2 mm exists between the end A of the bar and a rigid restraint. Calculate the axial compressive stress in the bar if the temperature is raised 90F. Use for copper the following material constants: E=110 GPa and = 9.8106.
Figure 4.3.28 Problem 4.3.29 Three identical springs, 10 in. apart, are attached to a horizontal rigid bar at points A, B, and C, as illustrated in Figure 4.3.29. Three vertical loads of magnitudes 138 N, 45 N and 31 N act at points A, B, and C, respectively. Calculate the angle of rotation (degrees) of the rigid bar if the spring stiffness k is 14 N/m.
- 199 -
Figure 4.3.34 Problem 4.3.30 The rigid bar ABCD, shown in Figure 4.3.30, is pinned at point B and supported by springs at A and D. The springs at A and D have stiffnesses k1 = 11.20 kN/m and k2 = 36.75 kN/m, respectively. The dimensions a, b, and c are 0.45 m, 0.90 m, and 0.35 m, respectively. A load P acts at point C. Determine the maximum permissible load Pmax if the angle of rotation of the bar due to the action of the load P is limited to 2.
Figure 4.3.30
- 200 -
REFERENCES
1. Craig, Roy R., Mechanics of Materials, Second Edition, John Willey & Sons, New York, 2000. Gere, James M., Mechanics of Materials, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 2001. Higdon, A., Ohlsen, E.H., and Stiles, W.B., Mechanics of Materials, Third Edition, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1962. Popov, E.P., Introduction to Mechanics of Solids, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersy, 1968. Mazilu P., Posea N. and Iordachescu E., Probleme de Rezistenta Materialelor, Vol I, Editura Tehnica Bucuresti, 1969. Hartog, J.P.D., Strength of Materials, Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1961. 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Solved Problems Proposed Problems

Chapter 2 Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam Cross-Section

Chapter 3 Equilibrium of the Plane Linear Members

Solved Problems Proposed Problems

Chapter 4 Axial Deformation

Solved Problems Proposed Problems

APPENDIX 1.1 Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons Ratio

APPENDIX 1.2 Yield and Ultimate Stress

APPENDIX 2.1 Geometrical Characteristics of Plane Areas

APPENDIX 2.2 Properties of the Romanian Rolled Shaped Sections

TABLE 2.2.1 Wide Flange Sections (I SHAPES)

TABLE 2.2.2 Channel Sections (U SHAPES)

TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)

TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES) - continuation

TABLE 2.2.4 Angle Sections with Unequal Legs (L SHAPES)

APPENDIX 2.3 Properties of American Rolled Shaped Sections .

TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES)

TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES) - continuation

TABLE 2.3.2 Channel Sections (C SHAPES)

TABLE 2.3.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)

CHAPTER 1 Stress-Strain Diagrams and Material Properties

is the initial area of the specimen and L* is the current

Figure 1.1.3 1.1.2 Material Behavior Non-Linear Elastic Behavior

Non-Linear Elasto-Plastic Behavior

Ductile and Brittle Materials

L* = The strain is calculated as:

d 0.30 2.54 2.54 = = 0.03 cm 25.4 25.4

L* 0.03 = 0.002 L0 15.24

Consequently the size of the original area is obtained as:

The obtained values are show in a tabular format below.

10 4.99510 8 11 5.07410 8 12 5.11310 8 13 5.15210 8 14 5.19210 8 15 5.19210 8 16 5.11310 8 17 4.95610 8

2.4 .10 1.8 .10 1.2 .10 6 .10

stress increased strain increased

k k the ratio stress-strain

Ek 8.052 * 1010 + 8.097 *1010 10 Eaverage = 8.075 10 Pa 2

4.8 .10 4.2 .10 3.6 .10 3 .10

2.4 .10 1.8 .10 1.2 .10 6 .10

Material A 73.66 mm 6.68 mm 6.9x1010 Pa 3.5x107 Pa 8.9x107Pa 1.25 10 5 Pa 0.85 of ultimate

B 56.39 mm 11.96 mm 7.2x1010Pa 5.0x108Pa 5.7x108Pa 4.14 10 5 Pa 0.85 of ultimate

The initial area of the specimen is: A0 := ( d0) 4

Afa A0 35.046 113.097 parea_a = 69.012 100 113.097 A0

3.5 *10 7 4 ya = 5.072 10 10 6.9 *10

The plot of the two stress-strain diagrams is shown in Figure 1.2.3.

The ductility ratios, other ductility indicators, are calculated as:

stress PL and the strain PL , is attained. B. Calculations

L 3mm PL = 0.015 200mm L0

The stress PL is obtained as:

P 20000 N 8 PL = 1.507 10 Pa 132.732mm A0

B.2 The modulus of elasticity The modulus of elasticity is calculated:

1.507 *10 8 Pa 10 E = 1.005 10 Pa 0.015

d 0.064mm 3 PL_trans = 4.923 10 13mm d0

The Poissons Ratio is calculated:

4.923 *10 3 = 0.328 0.015

where is nondimensional and has MPa

The original area of the specimen is: - 20 -

0 0 1.77110 8 2.4810 8 2.86210 8 3.110 8 3.26310 8 3.38210 8 3.47210 8 3.54310 8 3.610 8

10 3.64710 8 11 3.68610 8 12 3.7210 8

3.6 .10 3.2 .10 2.8 .10

2.4 .10 2 .10

1.6 .10 1.2 .10 8 .10 4 .10

The corresponding strain is calculated using the expression: P := P 1.24 10 Pa 3 10 P

3.5 10 7 4 ya = 5.072 10 10 6.9 10

3.108 10 8 1.24 1011 3 10 2 3.108 *10 8

(An z0n) (3600 110) + (2000 10) Sy = 4.16 10 mm