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CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INDUCTION MOTOR
In an AC induction motor, one set of electromagnets is formed in the stator because of the AC supply connected to the stator windings. The alternating nature of the supply voltage induces an Electromagnetic Force (EMF) in the rotor (just like the voltage is induced in the transformer secondary) as per Lenzs law, thus generating another set of electromagnets; hence the name induction motor. Interaction between the magnetic field of these electromagnets generates twisting force, or torque. As a result, the motor rotates in the direction of the resultant torque.
STATOR
The stator is made up of several thin laminations of aluminum or cast iron. They are punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder (stator core) with slots as shown in Figure 1.1. Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots. Each grouping of coils, together with the core it surrounds, forms an electro- magnet (a pair of poles) on the application of AC supply. The number of poles of an AC induction motor depends on the internal connection of the stator windings. The stator windings are connected directly
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ROTOR
The rotor is made up of several thin steel laminations with evenly spaced bars, which are made up of aluminum or copper, along the periphery. In the most popular type of rotor (squirrel cage rotor), these bars are connected at ends mechanically and electrically by the use of rings. Almost 90% of induction motors have squirrel cage rotors. This is because the squirrel cage rotor has a simple and rugged construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with axially placed parallel slots for carrying the conductors. Each slot carries a copper, aluminum, or alloy bar. These rotor bars are permanently short-circuited at both ends by means of the end rings, as shown in Figure 1.2. This total assembly resembles the look of a squirrel cage, which gives the rotor its name. The rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft. Instead, they are given a skew for two main reasons. The first reason is to make the motor run quietly by reducing magnetic hum and to decrease slot harmonics. The second reason is to help reduce the locking tendency of the rotor. The rotor teeth tend to remain locked under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two. This happens when the numbers of stator teeth are equal to the number of rotor teeth. The rotor is mounted on the shaft using bearings on each end; one end of the shaft is normally kept longer than the other for driving the load. Some motors may have an accessory shaft on the non-driving end for mounting speed or position sensing devices. Between the stator and the rotor, there exists
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The magnetic field produced in the rotor because of the induced voltage is alternating in nature. To reduce the relative speed, with respect to the stator, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the stator flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux. However, in practice, the rotor never succeeds in catching up to the stator field. The rotor runs slower than the speed of the stator field. This speed is called the Base Speed (Nb). The difference between NS and Nb is called the slip. The slip varies with the load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down or increase slip. A
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AC induction motors are the most common motors used in industrial motion control systems, as well as in main powered home appliances. Simple and rugged design, low-cost, low maintenance and direct connection to an AC power source are the main advantages of AC induction motors. Various types of AC induction motors are available in the market.
Different motors are suitable for different applications. Although AC induction motors are easier to design than DC motors, the speed and the torque control in various types of AC induction motors require a greater understanding of the design and the characteristics of these motors. This application note discusses the basics of an AC induction motor; the different types, their characteristics, the selection criteria for different applications and basic control techniques.
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The motor starts rotating in the direction of the resultant magnetic field. Once the motor reaches about 75% of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the start winding. From this point on, the single-phase motor can maintain sufficient torque to operate on its own. Except for special capacitor start/capacitor run types, all single-phase motors are generally used for applications up to 3/4 hp only. Depending on the various
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Figure 1.3 Single-phase AC Induction Motor with and without a start mechanism
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They are used in a wide range of belt-drive applications like small conveyors, large blowers and pumps, as well as many direct-drive or geared applications.
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Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the design. These include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs and intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting mechanisms, gate operators and garage door openers.
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This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher efficiency (see Figure 1.9 for torque speed curve). This motor is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal switch. It is able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of single-phase motor. These include woodworking machinery, air compressors, highpressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.
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The shaded-pole motor has many positive features but it also has several disadvantages. Its low starting torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated torque. It is a high slip motor with a running speed 7% to 10% below the synchronous speed. Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very low (below 20%). The low initial cost suits the shadedpole motors to low horsepower or light duty applications. Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low torque, low efficiency and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for most industrial or commercial use, where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the norm. Figure 1.9 shows the torque-speed curves of various kinds of single-phase AC induction motors.
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aluminum end rings, which also can be shaped to act as fans. In larger induction motors, copper or copper-alloy bars are used to fabricate the rotor cage winding. As the sinusoidally-distributed flux density wave produced by the stator magnetizing currents rotor conductors, it generates a voltage in them. The result is a sinusoidally-distributed set of currents in the short-circuited rotor bars. Because of the two-pole low resistance of these shorted bars, only a small relative angular velocity, between the angular velocity, , of the flux wave and the mechanical angular velocity rotor is required to produce the necessary rotor current. The relative angular velocity, , is called the slip velocity. The interaction of the sinusoidally-distributed air gap flux density and induced rotor currents produces a torque on the rotor. The typical induction motor speed-torque characteristic is shown in Figure Stator Rotor.
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Squirrel-cage AC induction motors are popular for their simple construction, low cost per horsepower, and low maintenance (they contain no brushes, as do DC motors). They are available in a wide range of power ratings. With field-oriented vector control methods, AC induction motors can fully replace standard DC motors, even in highperformance applications.
Wound-Rotor Motor
The slip-ring motor or wound-rotor motor is a variation of the squirrel cage induction motor. While the stator is the same as that of the squirrel cage motor, it has a set of windings on the rotor which are not short-circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip rings. These are helpful in adding external resistors and contactors. The slip necessary to generate the maximum torque (pull-out torque) is directly proportional to the rotor
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The downside of the slip ring motor is that slip rings and brush assemblies need regular maintenance, which is a cost not applicable to the standard cage motor. If the rotor windings are shorted and a start is attempted (i.e., the motor is converted to a standard induction motor), it will exhibit an extremely high locked rotor current typically as high as 1400% and a very low locked rotor torque, perhaps as low as 60%. In most applications, this is not an option. Modifying the speed torque curve by altering the rotor resistors, the speed at which the motor will drive a particular load can be altered. At full load, you can reduce the speed effectively to about 50% of the motor synchronous speed, particularly when driving variable torque/variable speed loads, such as printing presses or compressors. Reducing the speed below 50% results in very low efficiency due to higher power dissipation in the rotor resistances. This type of motor is used in applications for driving variable torque/ variable speed loads, such as in printing presses, compressors, conveyer belts, hoists and elevators.
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For drives with constant inertia, (dJ/dt) = 0. Therefore, the equation would be:
This shows that the torque developed by the motor is counter balanced by a load torque, Tl and a dynamic torque, J (dm/dt). The torque component, J (d/dt), is called the dynamic torque because it is present only during the transient operations. The drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than Tl. During acceleration, the motor should supply not only the load torque, but an additional torque component, J(dm/dt), in order to overcome the drive inertia. In drives with large inertia, such as electric trains, the motor torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order to get adequate acceleration. In drives requiring fast transient response, the motor torque should be maintained at the highest value and the motor load system should be designed with the lowest possible inertia. The energy associated with the dynamic torque, J (dm/dt), is stored in the form of kinetic energy (KE) given by, J.During deceleration, the dynamic torque, J (dm/dt), has a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T and maintains the drive motion by extracting energy from the stored kinetic energy. To summarize, in order to get steady state rotation of the motor, the torque developed by the motor (T) should always be equal to the torque requirement of the load (Tl). The torque-speed curve of the typical three-phase induction motor is shown in fig 1.12
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CHAPTER - 2
NEURAL NETWORKS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Neural networks are composed of simple elements operating in parallel. These elements are inspired by biological nervous systems. As in nature, the network function is determined largely by the connections between elements. Neural network is trained to perform a particular function by adjusting the values of the connections (weights) between elements. Commonly Neural Networks are adjusted, or trained, so that a particular input leads to a specific target output. There, the network is adjusted, based on a comparison of the output and the target, until the network output matches the target. Typically many such input/target pairs are used, in this supervised learning, to train a network
Batch training of a network proceeds by making weight and bias changes based on an entire set (batch) of input vectors. Incremental training changes the weights and biases of a network as needed after presentation of each individual input vector. Incremental training is sometimes referred to as "on line" or "adaptive" training. Neural networks have been trained to perform complex functions in various fields of application including pattern recognition, identification, classification, speech, and vision and control systems.
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The scalar input p is transmitted through a connection that multiplies its strength by the scalar weight w, to form the product wp, again a scalar. Here the weighted input wp is the only argument of the transfer function f, which produces the scalar output a. The neuron on the right has a scalar bias, b. You may view the bias as simply being added to the product wp as shown by the summing junction or as shifting the function f to the left by an amount b. The bias is much like a weight, except that it has a constant input of 1.
The transfer function net input n, again a scalar, is the sum of the weighted input wp and the bias b. This sum is the argument of the transfer function f. (Radial Basis
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All of the neurons in this toolbox have provision for a bias, and a bias is used in many of our examples and will be assumed in most of this toolbox. However, you may omit a bias in a neuron if you want. As previously noted, the bias b is an adjustable (scalar) parameter of the neuron. It is not an input. However, the constant 1 that drives the bias is an input and must be treated as such when considering the linear dependence of input vectors in Linear Filters.
Transfer Functions
The behaviour of an ANN (Artificial Neural Network) depends on both the weights and the input-output function (transfer function) that is specified for the units. This function typically falls into one of three categories: Linear (or ramp) Threshold Sigmoid For linear units, the output activity is proportional to the total weighted output. For threshold units, the output are set at one of two levels, depending on whether the total input is greater than or less than some threshold value. For sigmoid units, the output varies continuously but not linearly as the input changes. Sigmoid units bear a greater resemblance to real neurons than do linear or threshold units, but all three must be considered rough approximations.
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Feedback networks
Feedback networks can have signals travelling in both directions by introducing loops in the network. Feedback networks are very powerful and can get extremely complicated. Feedback networks are dynamic; their 'state' is changing continuously until they reach an equilibrium point. They remain at the equilibrium point until the input changes and a new equilibrium needs to be found. Feedback architectures are also referred to as interactive or recurrent, although the latter term is often used to denote feedback connections in single-layer organizations.
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Network layers
The commonest type of artificial neural network consists of three groups, or layers, of units: a layer of "input" units is connected to a layer of "hidden" units, which is connected to a layer of "output" units. The activity of the input units represents the raw information that is fed into the network. The activity of each hidden unit is determined by the activities of the input units and the weights on the connections between the input and the hidden units. The behavior of the output units depends on the activity of the hidden units and the weights between the hidden and output units. This simple type of network is interesting because the hidden units are free to construct their own representations of the input. The weights between the input and hidden units determine when each hidden unit is active, and so by modifying these weights, a hidden unit can choose what it represents.
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Perceptrons
The most influential work on neural nets in the 60's went under the heading of 'perceptrons' a term coined by Frank Rosenblatt. The perceptron (figure 4.4) turns out to be an MCP model (neuron with weighted inputs) with some additional, fixed, pre-processing. Units labelled A1, A2, Aj, Ap are called association units and their task is to extract specific, localised featured from the input images. Perceptrons mimic the basic idea behind the mammalian visual system. They were mainly used in pattern recognition even though their capabilities extended a lot more.
Backpropagation
Backpropagation was created by generalizing the Widrow-Hoff learning rule to multiple-layer networks and nonlinear differentiable transfer functions. Input vectors and the corresponding target vectors are used to train a network until it can approximate a function, associate input vectors with specific output vectors, or classify input. Networks with biases, a sigmoid layer, and a linear output layer are capable of approximating any function with a finite number of discontinuities. Standard back propagation is a gradient descent algorithm, as is the Widrow-Hoff learning rule, in which the network weights are moved along the negative of the gradient of the performance function. The term back propagation refers to the manner in which the gradient is
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The Neural Network Toolbox implements a number of these variations. This chapter explains how to use each of these routines and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each. Properly trained back propagation networks tend to give reasonable answers when presented with inputs that they have never seen. Typically, a new input leads to an output similar to the correct output for input vectors used in training that are similar to the new input being presented. This generalization property makes it possible to train a network on a representative set of input/target pairs and get good results without training the network on all possible input/output pairs.
There are two features of the Neural Network Toolbox that are designed to improve network generalization - regularization and early stopping. These features and their use are discussed later in this chapter. This chapter also discusses preprocessing and post processing techniques, which can improve the efficiency of network training .
Sales forecasting
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Electronic noses
ANNs are used experimentally to implement electronic noses. Electronic noses have several potential applications in telemedicine. Telemedicine is the practice of medicine over long distances via a communication link. The electronic nose would identify odours in the remote surgical environment. These identified odours would then be electronically transmitted to another site where a door generation system would recreate them. Because the sense of smell can be an important sense to the surgeon, telesmell would enhance telepresent surgery. For more information on telemedicine and telepresent surgery click here.
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Instant Physician
An application developed in the mid-1980s called the "instant physician" trained an autoassociative memory neural network to store a large number of medical records, each of which includes information on symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment for a particular case. After training, the net can be presented with input consisting of a set of symptoms; it will then find the full stored pattern that represents the "best" diagnosis and treatment
There is some potential for using neural networks for business purposes, including resource allocation and scheduling. There is also a strong potential for using neural networks for database mining, that is, searching for patterns implicit within the explicitly stored information in databases. Most of the funded work in this area is classified as proprietary. Thus, it is not possible to report on the full extent of the work going on. Most work is applying neural networks, such as the Hopfield-Tank network for optimization and scheduling.
Marketing
There is a marketing application which has been integrated with a neural network system. The Airline Marketing Tactician (a trademark abbreviated as AMT) is a computer system made of various intelligent technologies including expert systems. A feedforward neural network is integrated with the AMT and was trained using back-propagation to assist the marketing control of airline seat allocations. The adaptive neural approach was amenable to rule expression. Additionaly, the application's environment changed rapidly and constantly, which required a continuously adaptive solution. The system is used to monitor and recommend booking advice for each departure. Such information has a direct impact on the profitability of an airline and can provide a technological advantage for users of the system. [Hutchison & Stephens, 1987]
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Credit Evaluation
The HNC company, founded by Robert Hecht-Nielsen, has developed several neural network applications. One of them is the Credit Scoring system which increase the profitability of the existing model up to 27%. The HNC neural systems were also applied to mortgage screening. A neural network automated mortgage insurance underwritting system was developed by the Nestor Company. This system was trained with 5048 applications of which 2597 were certified. The data related to property and borrower qualifications. In a conservative mode the system agreed on the underwritters on 97% of the cases. In the liberal model the system agreed 84% of the cases. This is system run on an Apollo DN3000 and used 250K memory while processing a case file in approximately 1 sec.
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CHAPTER - 3
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
3.1 CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF SPEED CONTROL Methods of speed control.
The speed of a driven load often needs to run at a speed that varies according to the operation it is performing. The speed in some cases such as pumping may need to change dynamically to suit the conditions, and in other cases may only change with a change in process. Electric motors and coupling combinations used for altering the speed will behave as either a "Speed Source" or a "Torque Source". The "Speed Source" is one where the driven load is driven at a constant speed independent of load torque. A "Torque Source" is one where the driven load is driven by a constant torque, and the speed alters to the point where the torque of the driven load equals the torque delivered by the motor. Closed loop controllers employ a feedback loop to convert a "Torque Source" into a "Speed Source" controller.
Mechanical.
There are a number of methods of mechanically varying the speed of the driven load when the driving motor is operating at a constant speed. These are typically: Belt Drive Chain Drive Gear Box Idler wheel drive All of these methods exhibit similar characteristics whereby the motor operates at a constant speed and the coupling ratio alters the speed of the driven load. Increasing the torque load on the output of the coupling device, will increase the torque load on the motor. As the motor is operating at full voltage and rated frequency, it is capable of delivering grated output power. There is some power loss in the coupling device resulting in a reduction of overall efficiency. The maximum achievable efficiency is dependent on the design of the coupling device and sometimes the way it is set up. (e.g. belt tension, no of belts, type of belts etc.)Most mechanical coupling devices are constant ratio devices and
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Mechanical speed change methods obey the 'Constant Power Law' where the total power input is equal to the total power output. As the motor is capable of delivering rated power output, the output power capacity of the combination of motor and coupling device (provided the coupling device is appropriately rated) is the rated motor output power minus the loss power of the coupling device.
Torque 'T' is a Constant 'K' times the Power 'P' divided by the speed 'N'.
T=KxP/N
Therefore for an ideal lossless system, the torque at the output of the coupling device is increased by the coupling ration for a reduced speed, or reduced by the coupling ratio for an increased speed.
Magnetic.
There are two main methods of magnetically varying the speed of the driven load when the driving motor is operating at a constant speed. These are:
These methods use a coupling method between the motor and the driven load which operates on induced magnetic forces. The eddy current coupling is quite commonly employed, and is easily controlled by varying the bias on one of the windings. In operation, it is not unlike an induction motor, with one set of poles driven by the driving motor, hence operating at the speed of the driving motor.
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Hydraulic.
There are two main methods of hydraulically varying the speed of the driven load when the driving motor is operating at a constant speed. These are: Hydraulic pump and motor Fluid Coupling
The fluid coupling is a torque coupling whereby the input torque is equal to the output torque. This type of coupling suffers from very high slip losses, and is used primarily as a torque limited coupling during start with a typical slip during run of 5%. The constant power law still applies, but the power in the driven load reduces with speed. The difference between the input power and the output power is loss power dissipated in the coupling. In an extreme case, if the load is locked (stationary) and the motor is delivering full torque to the load via a fluid coupling, the load will be doing no work and hence absorbing no power, with the motor operating at full speed and full torque, the full output power of the motor is dissipated in the coupling. In most applications, the torque requirement of the load at reduced speed is much reduced, so the power dissipation is much less than the motor rating. In the case of a hydraulic pump and motor, the induction motor operates at a fixed speed, and drives a hydraulic pump which in turn drives a hydraulic motor. In many respects, this behaves in a manner similar to a gear box in that the hydraulic system transfers power to the load. The torque will be higher at the load than at the motor for a load running slower than the motor.
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Electrical.
There are a number of methods of electrically varying the speed of the driven load and driving motor.
These are:
D.C. Motor Universal Motor Schrage motor High Slip Motor (Fan Motor) Slip Ring Motor Variable Frequency Drive and Induction Motor
A shunt wound motor has separated field and armature windings. The torque output of the motor is varied by controlling the excitation on the armature winding while maintaining full voltage D.C. on the field. The voltage regulator only passes the current to the field winding, dissipating much less power than in the case of the shunt wound motor. D.C. motors are a torque source, and so are able to operate well under high transient load conditions. At low speed, the D.C. motor is able to deliver a high torque.
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The Universal Motor is a motor with a wound armature and a wound stator. The armature is fed via brushes on a commutator, and is essentially the same as a D.C. motor. The universal motor will operate off a single phase A.C. supply and accelerates until the load torque equals the output torque. Domestic appliances, such as vacuum cleaners, and small hand tools such as electric drills use this technology. The speed is changed by reducing the voltage applied to the motor. This is often a triac based voltage controller similar to a domestic light dimmer.
A Schrage motor
The Schrage Motor is a very special motor with a brush/commutator fed rotor and a slip ring fed rotor and a wound stator, and due to the way it is constructed is able to be speed controlled by variation of the position of the brushes relative to the field windings. The rotor has two windings, one of which is driven by the commutator/brush assembly and the other is driven by means of slip rings. These motors are usually of European origin and found of some of the older machines imported for specialised applications such as carpet making.
An induction motor with a high rotor resistance is a high slip motor and is often referred to as a fan motor or a type F motor. The torque capacity of this motor is high at low speeds and low at synchronous speed. By reducing the voltage applied to the Type F motor, the available torque is reduced and consequently, when coupled to a fan load, the speed reduces. A type F motor has a high power dissipation in the rotor and is only useful for smaller single phase and three phase machines. The actual speed is dependant on the stator voltage, motor characteristics and load torque. Voltage controllers are either transformers, variacs or SCR based solid state controllers.
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Slip Ring Motors are induction motors with a wound rotor with the rotor winding accessible via slip rings. Changing the value of external resistance connected in series with the rotor windings, will vary the torque curve of the motor. With a high value of resistance in the rotor circuit, the slip ring motor will behave like a type F motor. With the slip ring motor, the stator voltage is held constant at line voltage, and the rotor resistance is varied to alter the torque capacity of the motor and hence the speed. This type of speed control is used on large machines because the rotor power dissipated is external to the motor. Typical applications are in hoisting and dragline type machines associated with dredging machines.
The speed of standard induction motors can be controlled by variation of the frequency of the voltage applied to the motor. Due to flux saturation problems with induction motors, the voltage applied to the motor must alter with the frequency. The induction motor is a pseudo synchronous machine and so behaves as a speed source. The running speed is set by the frequency applied to it and is independent of load torque provided the motor is not over loaded.
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Scalar Control (V/f Control) Vector Control (Indirect Torque Control) Direct Torque Control (DTC)
Scalar Control
In this type of control, the motor is fed with variable frequency signals generated by the PWM control from an inverter using the feature rich PIC micro microcontroller. Here, the V/f ratio is maintained constant in order to get constant torque over the entire operating range. Since only magnitudes of the input variables frequency and voltage are controlled, this is known as scalar control. Generally, the drives with such a control are without any feedback devices (open loop control). Hence, a control of this type offers low cost and is an easy to implement solution. In such controls, very little knowledge of the motor is required for frequency control. Thus, this control is widely used. A disadvantage of such a control is that the
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Vector Control
This control is also known as the field oriented control, flux oriented control or indirect torque control. Using field orientation (Clarke-Park transformation), three-phase current vectors are converted to a two-dimensional rotating reference frame (d-q) from a three-dimensional stationary reference frame. The d component represents the flux producing component of the stator current and the q component represents the torque producing component. These two decoupled components can be independently controlled by passing though separate PI controllers. The outputs of the PI controllers are transformed back to the three-dimensional stationary reference plane using the inverse of the Clarke-Park transformation. The corresponding switching pattern is pulse width modulated and implemented using the SVM. This control simulates a separately exited DC motor model, which provides an excellent torque-speed curve. The transformation from the stationary reference frame to the rotating reference frame is done and controlled (stator flux linkage, rotor flux linkage or magnetizing flux linkage). In general, there exists three possibilities for such selection and hence, three different vector controls.
They are:
Stator flux oriented control Rotor flux oriented control Magnetizing flux oriented control
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The most high-performance VFDs in operation today employ indirect field orientation based on the slip relation. The main disadvantage of this method is the need of the rotor position information using the shaft mounted encoder. This means additional wiring and component cost. This increases the size of the motor. When the drive and the motor are far apart, the additional wiring poses a challenge. To overcome the sensor/encoder problem, todays main research focus is in the area of a sensor less approach. The advantages of the vector control are to better the torque response compared to the scalar control, full-load torque close to zero speed, accurate speed control and performance approaching DC drive, among others. But this requires a complex algorithm for speed calculation in real-time. Due to feedback devices, this control becomes costly compared to the scalar control.
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The vector control concept in a typical AC induction motor, 3 alternating currents electrically displaced by 1200 are applied to 3 stationary stator coils of the motor. The resulting flux from the stator induces alternating currents in the squirrel cage conductors of the rotor to create its own field these fields interact to create torque. Unlike a DC machine the rotor currents in an AC induction motor can not be controlled directly from an external source, but are derived from the interaction between the stator field and the resultant currents induced in the rotor conductors. Optimal torque production conditions are therefore not inherent in an AC Induction motor due to the physical isolation between the stator and rotor. Vector control of an AC induction motor is analogous to the control of a separately excited DC motor. In a DC motor (see figure 1) the field flux f produced by the field current Ia is perpendicular to the armature flux a produced by the armature current Ia. These fields are decoupled and stationary with respect to each other. Therefore when the armature current is controlled to control torque the field flux remains unaffected enabling a fast transient response.
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Vector control seeks to recreate these orthogonal components in the AC machine in order to control the torque producing current separately from the magnetic flux producing current so as to achieve the responsiveness of a DC machine.
Traditional control methods, such as the Volts-Hertz control method described above, control the frequency and amplitude of the motor drive voltage. In contrast, vector control methods control the frequency, amplitude and phase of the motor drive voltage. The key to vector control is to generate a 3-phase voltage as a phasor to control the 3phase stator current as a phasor that controls the rotor flux vector and finally the rotor current phasor. Ultimately, the components of the rotor current need to be controlled. The rotor current cannot be measured because the rotor is a steel cage and there are no direct
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Instantaneous stator phase currents, ia, ib and ic Rotor mechanical velocity Rotor electrical time constant
The motor must be equipped with sensors to monitor the 3-phase stator currents and a rotor velocity Feedback device.
Measure the motor quantities (phase voltages and currents) Transform them to the 2-phase system (, ) using a Clarke transformation Calculate the rotor flux space vector magnitude and position angle Transform stator currents to the d-q coordinate system using a Park transformation The stator current torque- (isq) and flux- (isd) producing components are separately controlled The output stator voltage space vector is calculated using the decoupling block An inverse Park transformation transforms the stator voltage space vector back from the d-q coordinate system to the 2-phase system fixed with the stator Using the space vector modulation, the output 3-phase voltage is generated.
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TRANSFORMATIONS
Forward and Inverse Clarke Transformation (a,b,c to , and backwards) The forward Clarke transformation converts a 3-phase system (a, b, c) to a 2-phase coordinate system (, ).Figure 4-2 shows graphical construction of the space vector and projection of the space vector to the quadrature-phase components , .
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Assuming that the a axis and the phase stator currents is follows: is
where: isa = Actual current of the motor Phase A [A] isb = Actual current of the motor Phase B [A]
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-phase isa,
isb, isc system. For constant k = 2/3, it is calculated by the following equations:
Forward and Inverse Park Transformation (, to d-q and backwards) The components is and is, calculated with a Clarke transformation, are attached to the stator reference frame ,. In vector control, all quantities must be expressed in the same reference frame. The stator reference frame is not suitable for the control process. The space vector is is rotating at a rate equal to the angular frequency of the phase currents. The components is and is depend on time and speed. These components can be transformed from the stator reference frame to the d-q reference frame rotating at the same speed as the angular frequency of the phase currents. The i sd and isq components do not then depend on time and speed. If the d-axis is aligned with the rotor flux, the transformation is illustrated in Figure below where field is the rotor flux position.
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The components isd and isq of the current space vector in the d-q reference frame are determined by the following equations:
The component isd is called the direct axis component (the flux-producing component) and isq is called the quadrature axis component (the torque-producing component). They are time invariant; flux and torque control with them is easy. To avoid using trigonometric functions on the hybrid controller, directly calculate sin Field and cosField using division, defined by the following equations:
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The inverse Park transformation from the d-q to the , coordinate system is found by the following equations:
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CHAPTER - 4
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Matlab (Matrix laboratory) is an interactive software system for numerical computations and graphics. As the name suggests, Matlab is especially designed for matrix computations.
Matlab program and script files always have filenames ending with ".m"; the programming language is exceptionally straightforward since almost every data object is assumed to be an array. Graphical output is available to supplement numerical results.
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Procedures and tools used in creating, optimizing, and checking in a program Introduction to the basic MATLAB program file
debugging,
Overview of scripts, simple programs that require no input or output, and functions, more complex programs that exchange input and output data with the caller Packaging the access to a function into a function handle, and passing that handle to other functions Handling the data passed into and out of an M-file function, checking input data, passing variable numbers of arguments Calling syntax, determining which function will be called, passing different types of arguments, passing arguments in structures and cell arrays, identifying function dependencies
Calling Functions
Y c)
Where = exp (j2/3) The above transform being reversible Ya = Re (Ys s), Yb = Re Vs s = Rs Is s + p
s s 2
Ys s), Yc = Re
Ys s).
Voltage equations on the stator with respect to stationary reference frame Voltage equations for rotor on rotor reference frame is : Vr = Rr Ir + p
r
=0
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Figure 4.1
I r
The rotor equation with respect to stationary reference frame is: 0 = Rr Ir s + (p j0) r
s
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Where 0 = p0 ; speed of motor in electrical frequency unit The flux linkage equations are given as: s s = Ls I s s + Lm I r r s = Lm I s s + Lr I r where
s s
Ls = Lls + Lm
Lr = Llr + Lm Dynamic model of induction motor on a stationary (stator) reference frame Vs s = (Rs + Ls p) Is s + Lm p Ir
s s
= (Rs + Ls p) Is
+ Lm p I r
+ ja s
+ p ( Ls I s
a
+ Lm Ir a)+ jasa
a
+ p (Lm Is
+ Lr I r
)+ (ja jo)ra
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+ ps
a
+ ja s
a a
+ pr
+ j (a - o) r
The dynamic model of induction motor is shown in figure below with the help of the above equations:
Vsa = Rs Is a + ps a + ja s a
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And K = LlsLlr + LlsLm + LmLlr Using the above equations between current and Flux:
Indirect or feed forward vector control: The control is done using the unit vector signals ( cose and sine) Very popular in industrial applications ds-qs dr-qr de-qe fixed on stator fixed on rotor are moving at a speed r rotating ahead of dr-qr by positive slip angle sl corresponding to slip
frequency sl therefore rotor pole is directed on the de axis and e = r + sl. We can write as: e = wedt = (r + sl)dt = r + sl for decoupling control, the stator flux component I ds should be aligned on the de axis and torque component of current I qs should be on qe axis for decouling control we can now make a derivation of control equations of indirect vector control with the help of de-qe equivalent circuits. The rotor circuits equations can be written as : the equivalent circuits are :
Dynamic de-qe
Dynamic de-qe
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The rotor circuit equations can be written as : ddr/dt + RrIdr (e-r)dr =0 dqr /dt + RrIqr + (e-r)qr = 0 (6.2.1) (6.2.2)
qr = LrIqr + LmIqs dr = LrIdr + LmIds we write the above equations as : Idr = (1/Lr)dr - (Lm/Lr)Ids Iqr = (1/Lr)qr - (Lm/Lr)Iqs Substituting the above equations in (6.2.1) and (6.2.2) : ddr/dt + (Rr/Lr)dr - (Lm/Lr)RrIds - slqr = 0 dqr/dt + (Rr/Lr) qr - (Lm/Lr) RrIqs + sldr = 0 where sl = e r for decoupling control it is desirable that:
qr = 0 that is dqr/dt = 0
so that total rotor flux r is directed on the de axis r = dr therefore the above equations can be written as: dr/dt + (Rr/Lr)r - (Lm/Lr)RrIds dr/dt + (Rr/Lr)r = (Lm/Lr)RrIds (Lr/Rr)( dr/dt) + r = LmIds And - (Lm/Lr) RrIqs + slr = 0 slr = (Lm/Lr) RrIqs =0
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e = r + sl (Lr/Rr)( dr/dt) + r = LmIds sl = (LmRr/rLr)Iqs the speed control loop generates the torque component of current iqs* as usual from
the flux component of current Ids* for the desired rotor flux r is determined equation r = LmIds and is maintained constant in open loop manner. The variation of magnetizing inductance Lm will cause some drift in the flux The slip frequency sl* is generated from Iqs* in feedforward manner from
sl = (LmRr/rLr)Iqs The corresponding slip gain Ks is: Ks = sl*/ Iqs*= LmRr/Lrr Signal sl* is added with speeed signal r to generate frequency signal e The unit vector signals cose and sine are then generated from e by integration. Torque equation: Te = (3/2)(p/2)(Lm/Lr) rIqs
Iq* Calculator
iq* Calculator
Te* Iq* Phir
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Id* calculator
i d * Ca l cu l a to r
Phir* I d*
1 Phir*
1 Id*
Theta calculator
Theta Calculator
Iq Phir wm theta
1 Iq 2 Phir 3 wm Theta= Electrical angle= integ ( wsl + wm) wsl=slip speed (rad/s) = Lm *Iq / ( Tr * Phir) wm= Rotor speed (rad/s) abc2dq abc to dq
iabc
Mux
34.7e-3*u[1]/(u[2]*0.1557+1e-3)
wsl
1 s
1 theta
Lm = 34.7 mH Lr = Ll'r +Lm = 0.8 +34.7= 35.5 mH Rr= 0.228 ohms Tr = Lr / Rr = 0.1557 s
idq
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dq to abc
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Flux Calculator
Phir Id
1 Phir
34.7e-3 Lm
1 Id
Phir = Lm *Id / (1 +Tr .s) Lm = 34.7 mH Tr = Lr / Rr = 0.1557 s Lr = Ll'r +Lm = 0.8 +34.7= 35.5 mH Rr = 0.228 ohms
Flux Calculator
Phir Id
Theta Calculator
Iq Phir wm theta
abc2dq
iabc idq theta
Demux
dq2abc
idq iabc^
1 Ie*
Is
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CHAPTER - 5
SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 PI CONTROLLER BACKGROUND
A complete discussion of Proportional Integral (PI) controllers is beyond the scope of this application note, but this section will provide you with the basics of PI operation. A PI controller responds to an error signal in a closed control loop and attempts to adjust the controlled quantity to achieve the desired system response. The controlled parameter can be any measurable system quantity such as speed, torque, or flux. The benefit of the PI controller is that it can be adjusted empirically by adjusting one or more gain values and observing the change in system response. A digital PI controller is executed at a periodic sampling interval. It is assumed that the controller is executed frequently enough so that the system can be properly controlled. The error signal is formed by subtracting the desired setting of the parameter to be controlled from the actual measured value of that parameter. The sign of the error indicates the directionof change required by the control input. The Proportional (P) term of the controller is formed by multiplying the error signal by a P gain, causing the PI controller to produce a control response that is a function of the error magnitude. As the error signal becomes larger, the P term of the controller becomes larger to provide more correction. The effect of the P term tends to reduce the overall error as time elapses. However, the effect of the P term reduces as the error approaches zero. In most systems, the error of the controlled parameter gets very close to zero but does not converge. The result is a small remaining steady state error. The Integral (I) term of the controller is used to eliminate small steady state errors. The I term calculates a continuous running total of the error signal. Therefore, a small steady state error accumulates into a large error value over time. This accumulated error signal is multiplied by an I gain factor and becomes the I output term of the PI controller.
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In presenting the various tuning techniques we shall assume the basic control configuration wherein the controller input is the error between the desired output (command set point input) and the actual output. This error is manipulated by the controller (PI) to produce a command signal for the plant according to the relationship. U(s) = Kp (1+1/ is) Or in time domain U(t) = Kp [e(t) + (1/ i ) edt] where Kp = proportional gain i = integral time constant If this response is S-shaped as in, Ziegler-Nichols tuning method is applicable.
L
Sshaped response of the plant
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time L and the time constant T as shown. These constants can be determined by drawing a tangent to the S-shaped curve at the inflection point and state value of the output. From the response of this nature the plant can be mathematically modeled as first order system with a time constant T and delay time L as shown in block diagram. controllers can then be calculated as below: Kp=1.2(T/L) i = 2L The gain K corresponds to the steady state value of the output Css. The value of Kp,Ti and Td of the
Neural networks can perform massively parallel operations. The exhibit fault tolerance since the information is distributed in the connections throughout the network. By using neural PI controller the peak overshoot is reduced and the system reaches the steady state quickly when compared to a conventional PI controller.
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SIMULATION RESULTS
Fig 6.4 :
controller
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Fig 6.5 :Torque and time characteristics of an induction motor using a conventional PI controller
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Fig 6.6 : Speed and time characteristics of an induction motor using a Neural Networks based controller:
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Fig 6.6 Speed and time characteristics of an induction motor using a Neural Networks based controller
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CHAPTER - 6
CONCLUSION
In this project the dynamic model induction motor is developed in the SIMULINK, and the vector controller is interfaced with it in the SIMULINK. The PI controller is designed with appropriate gain values and interfaced to the vector controlled induction motor. The system is simulated in the MATLAB and the results are observed.
The results of the PI controlled system are not accurate as it shows peak overshoot. To overcome this Neural Networks based controller is implemented, which reduces the overshoot and gives more accurate results than PI based controller. So, Neural Networks controller is an attractive technique when the plant model is complex. The only drawback of using more neurons in the hidden layer is the increased in number of weights and therefore the calculations involved in the training algorithm.
The extension of this project is to implementation of Neuro-Fuzzy Controller (NEFCON) for further better performance. NEFCON combines the merits of fuzzy systems and neural networks.
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BIBILOGRAPHY
1. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS B.YAGNA NARAYANA 2. AN INTRODUCTION TO NEURAL NETWORKS J.A.ANDERSON 3. ELECTRICAL MACHINES P.S.BIMBRA 4. ELECTRICAL MACHINES S.K.BHATTA CHARYA 5. MACHINE MODELLING KRAUSE 6. ELECTRICAL DRIVES---- VEDAM SUBRAMANYAM 7. MODERN POWER ELECTRONICS AND AC DRIVES-----BIMAL.K.BOSE
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