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B io Factsheet
Number 198
chloroplast envelope
Sometimes in the exam you will be presented with an electron micrograph of a chloroplast. Usually, the first question simply asks you to label it.
lipid droplet starch grain intergranal lamella stroma (matrix)
C
Exam Hint: You may be asked to identify the different structures in a chloroplast so make sure you learn the diagram.
Chloroplasts are organelles bounded by a double membrane this separates the contents of the chloroplast from the rest of the cell, allowing the photosynthetic reactions to take place without interference from chemicals in the cytoplasm.
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In green plants most of the chloroplasts are found in the leaf mesophyll, mainly in the palisade cells. These are located near the top of the leaf where most light falls.
Exam Hint: a synoptic question may ask you about the structure of a chloroplast and then go on to the chemical reactions involved, so make sure you understand the lightdependent and light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions produce ATP and NADPH which are required for the subsequent synthesis of carbohydrates in the light-independent reactions.
Markscheme
1. Chop up (accept any reference to crude breaking up); 2. Cold; 3. Buffer solution; 4. Isotonic / same water potential; 5. Filter and centrifuge filtrate; 6. Centrifuge supernatant; 7. At higher speed; 8. Chloroplasts in (second) pellet; The lamellae are embedded in a watery matrix called the stroma. The stroma contains numerous starch grains, lipid droplets, enzymes, dissolved salts, ribosomes and a circular strand of DNA. It is in the stroma that the light-independent reactions take place. The DNA enables chloroplasts to replicate themselves when the cell divides, ensuring new cells receive the correct number of chloroplasts. The possession of DNA and ribosomes by individual organelles is unusual. The only other structures where this occurs are mitochondria. Ribosomes produce proteins for use by the chloroplasts, particularly the enzymes required for the photosynthetic reactions.The ribosomes occur in the stroma, attached to the lamellae, or in groups called polyribosomes.
Summary
Chloroplasts are highly specialised cell organelles, their structure reflecting their function. Make sure you understand how the following structures are designed to enable photosynthesis to be carried out as efficiently as possible double membrane lamellae pigment molecules stroma DNA ribosomes
Some Chief Examiners like to set questions using unfamiliar diagrams. This doesnt make the questions any harder you just need to keep calm and work them out.
cell wall
palisade mesophyll
chloroplast spongy mesophyll vacuole air space Individual palisade cells contain numerous chloroplasts to trap light energy. The chloroplasts are arranged around the edge of the cell so that light can reach them without having to pass through the cytoplasm.
chloroplast
stomata
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The arrangement of chloroplast-containing cells and tissue within leaves also increases the efficiency of light capture.
H+
light NADP
ADP + Pi H+
AT P AT P Sythetase
NADPred E A 2e C 2e B
P680
thylakoid membrane
2e P700
H+ + + H+ H+ H H
(a) What pigment is represented by P680 and P700? (1) (b) Name the type of molecule represented by B. (1) (c) Name the process in which water molecules are split. (1) (d) What is the advantage of having membranes stacked into grana? (2)
Markscheme
(a) chlorophyll (b) electron carrier / cytochrome / protein / electron acceptor / ferredoxin /plastoquinone; (c) photolysis (d) increases surface area; for absorption of light; So even though the diagram looked horrific, the questions were actually very straightforward.
Synoptic Questions
These questions require you to pull together your knowledge of different parts of the specification to do some joined up Biology thinking.
Describe two ways in which the structure of a chloroplast differs from the structure of this bacterial cell.(2)
Markscheme
(a) prevent excess water entering or leaving the chloroplasts/ same water potential; prevent lysis / shrinkage of chloroplasts; (b) amino acids would be used to synthesise polypeptides; use autoradiography / UV / X- rays / photographic film; (c) ATP from photophosphorylation / photosynthesis/ light dependent reaction needed;
Markscheme
chloroplast has no cell wall; two membranes surrounding chloroplast; grana/thylakoids; starch granules;
Exam Hint:- Questions about chloroplasts nearly always link them to other aspects of photosynthesis, so make sure you revise the light-dependent and light -independent reactions, action and absorption spectra and factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. Data interpretation questions involving photosynthesis experiments and limiting factors are also common.
Answers
1. B 2. (a) A double membrane/envelope; B stroma; C lamellae/grana/thylakoid;
1. The diagram shows how some organelles may be distinguished from each other.
4. free / naked, DNA / DNA not surrounded by membrane / envelope have an inner folded membrane ; ribosomes, smaller than those in cytosol / similar in size to prokaryotic ribosomes ; A ref to 70S and 80S circular DNA ; absence of introns R absence of a nucleus from the chloroplast or mitochondrion R ref to membranous organelles as chloroplasts and mitochondria are these organelles
Practice questions
Organelle found in animal cells and in plant cells. Does not contain membranes arranged in stacks
Organelle found in plant cells. Contains inner membranes arranged in stacks Organelle B
3. A = accept AVP = acceptable valid points 1large surface area of chloroplast, qualified; e.g. biconvex shape; grana / thylakoid(s) (membranes), give large surface area; site of, light dependent reactions / photophosphorylation; ref to energy, transduction / conversion; chlorophyll / pigments, for light absorption / lose excited electrons; ref to wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll (blue + red or 450 + 680 nm); ref to (orientation of) chlorophyll in membrane; other photosynthetic pigments / named pigment(s); absorb different wavelengths of light; arranged into photosystems / light harvesting complexes (or clusters); A quantasomes; chlorophyll (a) molecule at centre of, photosystem / reaction centre; pigments funnel electrons to centre of photosystem (idea of antennae /); electron carriers / ETC system, in membrane; proton pumps / chemiosmosis / ref to movement of hydrogen ions / protons into thylakoid space; ATP production / synthetase / ATP ase; NADP present; Calvin cycle / light independent stage, enzymes in stroma; ref to rubisco; ref to storage of starch or lipid; ref DNA / ribosomes, making proteins; AVP; e.g. double membrane qualified photosystem 1 and 2 have different absorption peaks
2. The diagram below shows the structure of a chloroplast, as seen using the electron microscope.
(a) Name the parts labelled A, B and C.(3) (b) Give the letter of the structure where (i) the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place (1) (ii) the light-independent reactions take place (1) (c) Describe three ways in which structure C is adapted for photosynthesis (3)
(c) numerous membranes for attachment of chlorophyll/pigment molecules; pigment molecules absorb light energy; provide large surface area for attachment of extra pigment molecules; provide large surface area for attachment of enzymes/coenzymes (involved in light- dependent reactions); partition stroma to separate chemical reactions; (Any 3)
4. Many biologists believe that both chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from prokaryotic organisms that inhabited the cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells.
(b) (i) C;
(ii) B;
Suggest two structural features of mitochondria and chloroplasts that are also present in prokaryotic cells (2)
Larger organelle surrounded by an envelope through which there are pores. Usually one per cell. Organelle C
Smaller organelle surrounded by an outer membrane. Has an inner membrane, folded to form cristae. Many in a cell. Organelle D
4
Acknowledgements: This Factsheet was researched and written by Phill Hargrave. Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU. Bio Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
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Bio Factsheet