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Declaration
We declare that the work contained in this thesis is our own, except where explicitly stated otherwise. In addition this work has not been submitted to obtain another degree or professional qualification. Signed: Laeeq Ahmad Faiz Junaid-ur-Rehman Hafiz Muhammad Abdullah Muhammad Ismail Khan ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Date:_______________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To our beloved parents who prayed for our success day and night and supported our every decision with affection and love and to our respected teachers whose guidance and advice has brought us to the point where we have deep understanding of things and can call ourselves professionals. And to our fellow students who were there for us through every thick and thin and who made it possible to spend those tiring curricular years in a healthy and light mood. To our respect project supervisor Sir Adnan Bashir who guided us through this tough subject and made possible for this project to see its finishing line. And finally to our team members who worked whole heartedly with a team spirit encouraging each other and supporting when then there were times of no hope.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Flexible AC Transmission is an emerging technology in the Power World which uses power electronic devices for reactive compensation. FACTS devices can be utilized to control power flow and enhance system stability. Particularly with the deregulation of electricity market, there is an increasing interest in using FACTS devices in the operation and control of power systems with new loading and power flow conditions. A better utilization of the existing power systems, to increases their capacity and controllability by installing facts devices becomes imperative. Due to the present situation there are two main aspects which should be considered in using FACTS devices. The first aspect is the flexible power operation according to the power flow control capability of FACTS devices the other aspect is the improvement in transient and steady state stability of power systems. Facts devices are the right equipment to meet these challenges. Facts devices can be effectively utilized for the steady state power control and dynamic control of power systems. One of the more intriguing and potentially most versatile classes of FACTS device is the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).The UPFC can provide simultaneous control of all basic power system parameters (transmission) voltage, impedance and phase angle). The controller can fulfill functions of reactive shunt compensation, series compensation and phase shifting meeting multiple control objectives. From a functional perspective, the objectives are met by applying a boosting transformer injected voltage and an exciting transformer reactive current. The injected voltage is inserted by a series transformer. In addition to allow control of the line active and reactive power, the UPFC provides an additional degree of freedom. Its shunt converter operating as a STATCOM controls voltage by absorbing or generating reactive power. Both the series and shunt converters use a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC) connected on the secondary side of a coupling transformer. The VSCs use forced-commutated power electronic devices (GTOs, IGBTs or IGCTs) to synthesize a voltage from a DC voltage source. We have performed UPFC simulation in Simulink (Matlab) in which the power flow control, voltage regulation and stability provided by UPFC has been verified.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter # 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 INTRODUCTION TO FACTS DEVICES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 1.2 FLEXIBLE ALTERNATING CURRENT TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS -------------------------------- 2 1.3 INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS ------------------------------------------ 4 1.4 AN OVERVIEW OF FACTS CONTROLLERS ---------------------------------------------------------- 5 Chapter # 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12 INTRODUCTION TO UPFC ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12 2.1 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR(STATCOM) -------------------------------------------- 13 2.2 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR(SSSC) ----------------------------------------- 14 2.3 TECHNICAL ADVANTAGE OF UPFC----------------------------------------------------------------- 16 Chapter # 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE TO UNDERSTAND FACTS ------------------------------------------------- 21 3.1 THE SYMMETRICAL SYSTEM ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24 3.2 LOADS AND PHASOR DIAGRAMS ------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 3.3 FERRANTI EFFECT------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 3.4 SYNCHRONISM: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 3.5 VOLTAGE PROFILE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28 Chapter # 4 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29 POWER FLOW CONTROL OF 500/230 KV GRID WITH UPFC -------------------------------------------- 29 SIMULATION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 500/230 KV GRID WITHOUT UPFC ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 500/230 KV GRID WITH UPFC---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 SIMULATION RESULTS: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41 NETWORK WITHOUT UPFC------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41 WITH UPFC ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43 BOTH BYPASSED (SIMULATION DIAGRAM) ----------------------------------------------------------- 44 BOTH BYPASSED (OBSERVATIONS) -------------------------------------------------------------------- 45 FIRST CONNECTED AND SECOND BYPASSED (SIMULATION DIAGRAM) ------------------------- 47 FIRST CONNECTED AND SECOND BYPASSED (OBSERVATIONS)----------------------------------- 48 BOTH CONNECTED (SIMULATION DIAGRAM) -------------------------------------------------------- 50 BOTH CONNECTED (OBSERVATIONS) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 51 REMARKS: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Chapter # 5 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF 500KV TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ----------------------------------------- 54 VOLTAGE REGULATION: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56 REMARKS: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57 Chapter # 6 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58 STABILITY OF 500KV TRANSMISSION SYSTEM---------------------------------------------------------- 58 VOLTAGE WITHOUT UPFC (OBSERVATIONS) --------------------------------------------------------- 60 VOLTAGE WITH UPFC (OBSERVATIONS) -------------------------------------------------------------- 61 REMARKS: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62 Chapter # 7 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 CONCLUSION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. 1.1 OPERATIONAL LIMITS OF THE TRANSMISSION LINES .............................................. 4 FIG. 1.2 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR FACT DEVICES ........................................................................... 6 FIG. 1.3 TYPICAL SVC CONFIGURATIONS .................................................................................... 9 FIG. 2.1 THE UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC) ................................................... 12 FIG. 2.2 STATCOM ............................................................................................................................ 13 FIG. 2.3 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR ...................................................... 14 FIG. 2.4 EFFECT OF SSSC ON TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGES ........................................... 15 FIG. 2.5 UPFC INSTALLED IN A TRANSMISSION LINE ............................................................. 17 FIG. 2.6 SINGLE PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ........................................................................ 18 FIG. 2.7 (A) ACTIVE/REACTIVE POWER CONTROL (B) VOLTAGE REGULATION .............. 18 FIG. 2.8 COMPARISON OF UPFC WITH OTHER FACTS TECHNIQUES ................................... 20 FIG. 3.1 BASICS OF POWER FLOW ................................................................................................ 24 FIG. 3.2 SIMPLE POWER SYSTEM.................................................................................................. 25 FIG. 3.3 PHASOR DIAGRAM, RESISTIVE LOAD. ......................................................................... 25 FIG. 3.4 PHASOR DIAGRAM, INDUCTIVE LOAD. ....................................................................... 26 FIG. 3.5 PHASOR DIAGRAM, CAPACITIVE LOAD. ..................................................................... 26 FIG. 3.6 EFFECT OF RESISTIVE AND INDUCTIVE LOAD ON SYSTEM VOLTAGE ............... 27 FIG. 4.1 CASE OF STUDY ................................................................................................................. 29 FIG. 4.2 SYSTEM MODELED ON SIMULINK (WITHOUT UPFC) ............................................... 31 FIG. 4.3 ACTIVE POWER METERING WITH RESPECT TO TIME (WITHOUT UPFC) ............. 32 FIG. 4.4 REACTIVE POWER METERING WITH RESPECT TO TIME (WITHOUT UPFC) ........ 33 FIG. 4.5 SYSTEM MODELED WITH UPFC ..................................................................................... 34 FIG. 4.6 SETTINGS OF THE TIMER BLOCK .................................................................................. 35 FIG. 4.7 REF ACTIVE POWER.......................................................................................................... 36 FIG. 4.8 ACTIVE POWER W.R.T TIME (WITH UPFC) .................................................................. 37 FIG. 4.9 REACTIVE POWER W.R.T TIME (WITH UPFC) ............................................................. 38 FIG. 4.10 CASE MODIFIED (NO UPFC INSTALLED).................................................................... 40 FIG. 4.11 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 1-5 (WITHOUT UPFC) ............................................. 41 FIG. 4.12 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 6-9 (WITHOUT UPFC) ............................................. 42 FIG. 4.13 CASE MODIFIED (UPFC INSTALLED BOTH BYPASSED) ......................................... 44 FIG. 4.14 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 1-5 (WITH UPFC BOTH BYPASSED) .................... 45 FIG. 4.15 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 6-9 (WITH UPFC BOTH BYPASSED) .................... 46
FIG. 4.16 CASE MODIFIED (WITH UPFC 1ST CONNECTED 2ND BYPASSED) ........................... 47 FIG. 4.17 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 1-5 (UPFC 1ST CONNECTED 2ND BYPASSED) ..... 48 FIG. 4.18 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 6-9 (UPFC 1ST CONNECTED 2ND BYPASSED) ..... 49 FIG. 4.19 CASE MODIFIED (WITH UPFC BOTH CONNECTED) ................................................. 50 FIG. 4.20 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 1-5 (WITH UPFC BOTH CONNECTED) ................ 51 FIG. 4.21 ACTIVE POWER READING BUS 6-9 (WITH UPFC BOTH CONNECTED) ................ 52 FIG. 5.1 CASE MODIFIED FOR ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE REGULATION ............................... 54 FIG. 6.1 CIRCUIT BREAKER INSTALLED AT DOUBLE CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINE .... 59 FIG. 6.2 BLOCK PARAMETERS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER ............................................................ 59 FIG. 6.3 BUS VOLTAGES WITHOUT UPFC ................................................................................... 60 FIG. 6.4 BUS VOLTAGES WITH UPFC ........................................................................................... 61
FACTS UPFC STATCOM SSSC DVR SVR SVR TCSC PST IPFC GUPFC PS LTC TCSC IPC SVC HVDC
Flexible alternating current transmission systems Unified Power Flow Controller Static synchronous compensator Static synchronous series compensator Dynamic Voltage Restorer Static Voltage Restorer Static Voltage Restorer Thyristor Controlled Switched Capacitor Phase Shifting Transformers Interline Power Flow Controller Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller Phase shifter Load Tap changer Thyristor-controlled series capacitor Interphase power controller Static VAR compensator High-voltage direct-current
ABSTRACT
The maintenance and reliability of the power system has become a major aspect of study. The encouragement to the construction of HV lines, the amount of power transmission/km on HV line and the amount of power transaction as seen from economic side is much responsible for concern towards congestion in power system. The solution is the use of FACTS devices especially the use of UPFC. In this paper the performance of unified power flow controller is investigated in controlling the flow of power over the transmission line. Voltage sources model is utilized to study the behavior of the UPFC in regulating the active, reactive power and voltage profile. Finally, by help of modeling of a power system in MATLAB, and by installing UPFC in transmission link, its use as power flow controller and voltage injection is seen. Conclusion is made on different results to see the benefit of UPFC in power system.
Chapter # 1
1.1 Background
The electricity supply industry is undergoing a profound transformation worldwide. Market forces, scarcer natural resources, and an ever increasing demand for electricity are some of the drivers responsible for such an unprecedented change. Against this background of rapid evolution, the expansion programs of many utilities are being thwarted by a variety of well-founded, environmental, land-use, and regulatory pressures that prevent the licensing and building of new transmission lines and electricity generating plants. An in-depth analysis of the options available for maximizing existing transmission assets, with high levels of reliability and stability, has pointed in the direction of power electronics. There is general agreement that novel power electronics equipment and techniques are potential substitutes for conventional solutions, which are normally based on electromechanical technologies that have slow response times and high maintenance costs. An electrical power system can be seen as the interconnection of generating sources and customer loads through a network of transmission lines, transformers, and ancillary equipment. Its structure has many variations that are the result of a legacy of economic, political, engineering, and environmental decisions. Based on their structure, power systems can be broadly classified into meshed and longitudinal systems. Meshed systems can be found in regions with a high population density and where it is possible to build power stations close to load demand centers. Longitudinal systems are found in regions where large amounts of power have to be transmitted over long distances from power stations to load demand centers. Independent of the structure of a power system, the power flows throughout the network are largely distributed as a function of transmission line impedance; a
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transmission line with low impedance enables larger power flows through it than does a transmission line with high impedance. This is not always the most desirable outcome because quite often it gives rise to a myriad of operational problems; the job of the system operator is to intervene to try to achieve power flow redistribution, but with limited success. Examples of operating problems to which unregulated active and reactive power flows may give rise are: loss of system stability, power flow loops, high transmission losses, voltage limit violations, an inability to utilize transmission line capability up to the thermal limit, and cascade tripping. In the long term, such problems have traditionally been solved by building new power plants and transmission lines, a solution that is costly to implement and that involves long construction times and opposition from pressure groups. It is envisaged that a new solution to such operational problems will rely on the upgrading of existing transmission corridors by using the latest power electronic equipment and methods, a new technological thinking that comes under the generic title of FACTS an acronym for flexible alternating current transmission systems.
The basic applications of FACTS-devices are: power flow control, increase of transmission capability, voltage control, reactive power compensation, stability improvement, power quality improvement, power conditioning, flicker mitigation, interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages. In all applications the practical requirements, needs and benefits have to be considered carefully to justify the investment into a complex new device. Figure 1.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important. The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times down to far below one second. In the following a structured overview on FACTS-devices is given. These devices are mapped to their different fields of applications. Detailed introductions in FACTS-devices can also be found in the literature [1]-[5] with the main focus on basic technology, modeling and control.
Fig. 1.1 Operational limits of the transmission lines for different voltage levels
on power transfer can always be relieved by the addition of new transmission and generation facilities. Alternatively, FACTS controllers can enable the same objectives to be met with no major alterations to system layout. The potential benefits brought about by FACTS controllers include reduction of operation and transmission investment cost, increased system security and reliability, increased power transfer capabilities, and an overall enhancement of the quality of the electric energy delivered to customers.
The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to compensate this. In each column the elements can be structured according to their connection to the power system. The shunt devices are primarily for reactive power compensation and therefore voltage control. The SVC provides in comparison to the mechanically switched compensation a smoother and more precise control. It improves the stability of the network and it can be adapted instantaneously to new situations. The STATCOM goes one step further and is capable of improving the power quality against even dips and flickers. The series devices are compensating reactive power. With their influence on the effective impedance on the line they have an influence on stability and power
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flow. These devices are installed on platforms in series to the line. Most manufacturers count Series Compensation, which is usually used in a fixed configuration, as a FACTS-device. The reason is, that most parts and the system setup require the same knowledge as for the other FACTS-devices. In some cases the Series Compensator is protected with a Thyristor-bridge. The application of the TCSC is primarily for damping of inter-area oscillations and therefore stability improvement, but it has as well a certain influence on the power flow. The SSSC is a device which has so far not been build on transmission level because Series Compensation and TCSC are fulfilling all the today's requirements more cost efficient. But series applications of Voltage Source Converters have been implemented for power quality applications on distribution level for instance to secure factory in-feeds against dips and flicker. These devices are called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) or Static Voltage Restorer (SVR). More and more growing importance are getting the FACTS-devices in shunt and series configuration. These devices are used for power flow controllability. The higher volatility of power flows due to the energy market activities requires a more flexible usage of the transmission capacity. Power flow control devices shift power flows from overloaded parts of the power system to areas with free transmission capability. Phase Shifting Transformers (PST) are the most common device in this sector. Their limitation is the low control speed together with a high wearing and maintenance for frequent operation. As an alternative with full and fast controllability the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is known since several years mainly in the literature and but as well in some test installations. The UPFC provides power flow control together with independent voltage control. The main disadvantage of this device is the high cost level due to the complex system setup. The relevance of this device is given especially for studies and research to figure out the requirements and benefits for a new FACTS-installation. All simpler devices can be derived from the UPFC if their capability is sufficient for a given situation. Derived from the UPFC there are even more complex devices called Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) and Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller (GUPFC)
which provide power flow controllability in more than one line starting from the same substation.
FACTS controllers intended for steady-state operation are as follows: Thyristor-controlled phase shifter (PS): This controller is an electronic phase-shifting transformer adjusted by thyristor switches to provide a rapidly varying phase angle. Load tap changer (LTC): This may be considered to be a FACTS controller if the tap changes are controlled by thyristor switches. Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): A thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is a reactance, which is connected in series with a bidirectional thyristor valve. The thyristor-controlled reactor is an important component of a Static VAR Compensator. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled. By phase-controlled switching of the thyristor valve, the value of delivered reactive power can be set. Thyristor-controlled reactors can also be used for limiting voltage rises when circuits are open. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC): This controller consists of a series capacitor paralleled by a thyristorcontrolled reactor in order to provide smooth variable series compensation.
Interphase power controller (IPC): This is a series-connected controller comprising two parallel branches, one inductive and one capacitive, subjected to separate phase-shifted voltage magnitudes. Active power control is set by independent or coordinated adjustment of the two phase-shifting sources and the two variable reactance. Reactive power control is independent of active power.
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Static VAR compensator (SVC): SVCs can be used to perform a wide range of compensation tasks in large transmission systems. Requirements vary greatly and are sometimes contradictory. The control system can be designed so that priorities can be flexibly assigned to one task or another, depending on current conditions in the power system. Fig. 1.3 shows some typical SVC configurations. The selection of the individual configuration depends on factors like investment costs, losses and availability figures.
Static compensator (STATCOM): A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), also known as a "static synchronous condenser" ("STATCON"), is a regulating device used on alternating current electricity transmission networks. It is based on a power electronics voltagesource converter and can act as either a source or sink of reactive AC power to an electricity network. If connected to a source of power it can also provide active AC power. It is a member of the FACTS family of devices. Usually a STATCOM is installed to support electricity networks that have a poor power factor and often poor voltage regulation. There are however, other uses,
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the most common use is for voltage stability. A STATCOM is a voltage source converter (VSC)-based device, with the voltage source behind a reactor. The voltage source is created from a DC capacitor and therefore a STATCOM has very little active power capability. However, its active power capability can be increased if a suitable energy storage device is connected across the DC capacitor. The reactive power at the terminals of the STATCOM depends on the amplitude of the voltage source. The response time of a STATCOM is shorter than that of an SVC, mainly due to the fast switching times provided by the IGBTs of the voltage source converter. The STATCOM also provides better reactive power support at low AC voltages than an SVC, since the reactive power from a STATCOM decreases linearly with the AC voltage (as the current can be maintained at the rated value even down to low AC voltage).
Solid-state series controller (SSSC): The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a device that belongs to the Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) family using power electronics to control power flow and improve power oscillation damping on power grids. The SSSC injects a voltage in series with the transmission line where it is connected. The SSSC contains a solid-state voltage source inverter connected in series with the transmission line through an insertion transformer. This connection enables the SSSC to control power flow in the line for a wide range of system conditions. Unified power flow controller (UPFC): This consists of a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and a STATCOM, connected in such a way that they share a common DC capacitor. The UPFC, by means of an angularly unconstrained, series voltage injection, is able to control, concurrently or selectively, the transmission line impedance, the nodal voltage magnitude, and the active and reactive power flow through it. It may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.
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Power electronic and control technology have been applied to electric power systems for several decades. HVDC links and static VAR compensators are mature pieces of technology: High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) link: This is a controller comprising a rectifier station and an inverter station, joined either back-to-back or through a DC cable. The converters can use either conventional thyristors or the new generation of semiconductor devices such as gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) or insulated gate bipolar transistors.
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Chapter # 2
Introduction to UPFC
The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) proposed by Gyugyi [1] is the most versatile FACTS controller for the regulation of voltage and power flow controller in a transmission line. It consists of two voltage source converters (VSC) one shunt connected and the other series connected. The DC capacitors of the two converters are connected in parallel (see Fig. 2.1).
If the switches 1 and 2 are open, the two converters work as STATCOM and SSSC controlling the reactive current and reactive voltage injected in shunt and series respectively in the line. The closing of the switches 1 and 2 enable the two converters to exchange real (active) power flow between the two converters. The active power can be either absorbed or supplied by the series connected converter. As discussed in the previous chapter, the provision of a controllable power source on the DC side of
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the series connected converter, results in the control of both real and reactive power flow in the line (say, measured at the receiving end of the line). The shunt connected converter not only provides the necessary power required, but also the reactive current injected at the converter bus. Thus, a UPFC has 3 degrees of freedom unlike other FACTS controllers which have only one degree of freedom (control variable).
Operating Principle of the STATCOM In steady state operation, the voltage V2 generated by the VSC is in phase with V1 (=0), so that only reactive power is flowing (P=0). If V2 is lower than V1, Q is flowing from V1 to V2 (STATCOM is absorbing reactive power). On the reverse, if V2 is higher than V1, Q is flowing from V2 to V1 (STATCOM is generating reactive power). A capacitor connected on the DC side of the VSC acts as a DC voltage source. In steady state the voltage V2 has to be phase shifted slightly behind V1 in order to compensate for transformer and VSC losses and to keep the capacitor charged.
The schematic of a SSSC is shown in Fig.2.2 (a). The equivalent circuit of the SSSC is shown in Fig 2.2 (b).
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The magnitude of Vq can be controlled to regulate power flow. The winding resistance and leakage reactance of the connecting transformer appear in series with the voltage source Vq. If there is no energy source on the DC side, neglecting losses in the converter and DC capacitor, the power balance in steady state leads to Re[ VqI* ] = 0 (2.1)
The above equation shows that Vq is in quadrature with I. If Vq lags I by 90, the operating mode is capacitive and the current (magnitude) in the line is increased with resultant increase in power flow. On the other hand, if Vq leads I by 90, the operating mode is inductive, and the line current is decreased. As the SSSC does not use any active power source, the injected voltage must stay in quadrature with line current. By varying the magnitude Vq of the injected voltage in quadrature with current, the SSSC performs the function of a variable reactance compensator, either capacitive or inductive. The variation of injected voltage is performed by means of a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC) connected on the secondary side of a coupling transformer. The VSC uses forced-commutated power electronic devices (GTOs, IGBTs or IGCTs) to synthesize a voltage V_conv from a DC voltage source.
A capacitor connected on the DC side of the VSC acts as a DC voltage source. A small active power is drawn from the line to keep the capacitor charged and to provide transformer and VSC losses, so that the injected voltage Vs is practically 90 degrees out of phase with current I. In the control system block
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diagram Vd_conv and Vq_conv designate the components of converter voltage V_conv which are respectively in phase and in quadrature with current.
2.3.1 Theme The shunt inverter is used for voltage regulation at the point of connection injecting an opportune reactive power flow into the line and to balance the real power flow exchanged between the series inverter and the transmission line. The series inverter can be used to control the real and reactive line power flow inserting an opportune voltage with controllable magnitude and phase in series with the transmission line. Thereby, the UPFC can fulfill functions of reactive shunt compensation, active and reactive series compensation and phase shifting. Besides, the UPFC allows a secondary but important function such as stability control to suppress power system oscillations improving the transient stability of power system. As the need for flexible and fast power flow controllers, such as the UPFC, is expected to grow in the future due to the changes in the electricity markets, there is a corresponding need for reliable and realistic models of these controllers to investigate the impact of them on the performance of the power system.
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2.3.2 Structure The general structure of the UPFC contains two "back to back" voltage source converters using insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) or Integrated Gate Commutated Thyrister (IGCT) with a common DC link (Fig. 2). First converter is connected as parallel and another converter as series with transmission line. The shunt converter is used to provide active power demanded by the series converter through a common DC link. The series converter provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting an AC voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle. The transmission line current flows through series converter and therefore, it exchanges the active and reactive power with the AC system. Generally, this structure (Fig.2) enables voltage control by the shunt inverter and independent active and reactive power flow control by the series inverter.
In the parallel branch of UPFC the active power is controlled by the phase angle of the converter output voltage. In the series branch of UPFC the active and reactive power flows in the transmission line are influenced by the amplitude as well as the phase angle of the series injected voltage. Therefore, the active power controller can significantly affects the reactive power flow and vice versa [5].
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2.3.3 Phasor diagram representation Single phase circuit representation is given below with UPFC installed in the power system (Fig. 3). The voltages at the midpoint of transmission line is marked as VM, whereas the voltage injected by UPFC with controllable magnitude and phase is marked as Vc .
The shunt inverter in UPFC is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current IC into the transmission line. This current consists of two components with respect to the line voltage: 1) the real or direct component Id 2) reactive or quadrature component Iq The following phasor diagram (Fig. 4) is well explaining the effect of direct and quadrature components.
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Harmonic Isolator: The UPFC as harmonic isolator uses the series voltage source in another mode. In this mode the voltage harmonics associated with the non-linear load are isolated. The isolating voltage source now prevents the load harmonics from penetrating back into the system onto the voltage receiving bus. This injected voltage source can also be used to isolate incoming network harmonics from penetrating into local harmonic filters and sensitive loads. The table given below dictates the technical supremacy of UPFC over the rest of FACTs family.
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Chapter # 3
power station. Most industrial loads have lagging power factors; that is, they absorb reactive power. The load current therefore tends to be larger than is required to supply the real power alone. Only the real power is ultimately useful in energy conversion and the excess load current represents a waste to the consumer, who has to pay not only for the excess cable capacity to carry it, but also for the excess Joule loss in the supply cables. When load power factors are low, generators and distribution networks cannot be used at full efficiency or full capacity, and the control of voltage throughout the network can become more difficult. Supply tariffs to industrial customers usually penalize low power-factor loads, encouraging the use of power-factor correction equipment. The most obvious way to improve voltage regulation would be to `strengthen' the power system by increasing the size and number of generating units and by making the network more densely interconnected. This approach is costly and severely constrained by environmental planning factors. It also raises the fault level and the required switchgear ratings. It is better to size the transmission and distribution system according to the maximum demand for real power and basic security of supply, and to manage the reactive power by means of compensators and other equipment which can be deployed more flexibly than generating units, without increasing the fault level. Similar considerations apply in load balancing. Most AC power systems are three- phase, and are designed for balanced operation. Unbalanced operation gives rise to components of current in the wrong phase-sequence (i.e. negative- and zero-sequence components). Such components can have undesirable effects, including additional losses in motors and generating units, oscillating torque in AC machines, increased ripple in rectifiers, malfunction of several types of equipment, saturation of transformers, and excessive triplen harmonics and neutral currents. The harmonic content in the voltage supply waveform is another important measure in the quality of supply. Harmonics above the fundamental power frequency are usually eliminated by filters. Nevertheless, harmonic problems often arise together with compensation problems and some types of compensator even generate harmonics which must be suppressed internally or filtered.
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The ideal compensator would (a) supply the exact reactive power requirement of the load; (b) present a constant-voltage characteristic at its terminals; and (c) be capable of operating independently in the three phases. In practice, one of the most important factors in the choice of compensating equipment is the underlying rate of change in the load current, power factor, or impedance. For example, with an induction motor running 24 hours/day driving a constant mechanical load (such as a pump), it will often suffice to have a fixed powerfactor correction capacitor. On the other hand, a drive such as a mine hoist has an intermittent load which will vary according to the burden and direction of the car, but will remain constant for periods of one or two minutes during the travel. In such a case, power-factor correction capacitors could be switched in and out as required. An example of a load with extremely rapid variation is an electric arc furnace, where the reactive power requirement varies even within one cycle and, for a short time at the beginning of the melt, it is erratic and unbalanced. In this case a dynamic compensator is required, such as a TCR or a saturated-reactor compensator, to provide sufficiently rapid dynamic response. Loads that require compensation include arc furnaces, induction furnaces, arc welders, induction welders, steel rolling mills, mine winders, large motors (particularly those which start and stop frequently), excavators, chip mills, and several others. Non-linear loads such a s rectifiers also generate harmonics and may require harmonic filters, most commonly for the 5th and 7th but sometimes for higher orders as well. The power-factor and the voltage regulation can both be improved if some of the drives in a plant are synchronous motors instead of induction motors, because the synchronous motor can be controlled to supply (or absorb) an adjustable amount of reactive power and therefore it can be used as a compensator. Voltage dips caused by motor starts can also be avoided by using a `soft starter', that is, a phase-controlled thyristor switch in series with the motor, which gradually ramps the motor voltage from a reduced level instead of connecting suddenly at full voltage.
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stations (i.e. the steam turbines, water turbines, gas turbines, wind turbines etc.).
Fig. 3.1 Basics of Power Flow
Although the circuit diagram of a symmetrical system just looks like two generators connected by inductive impedance, power can flow in either direction. The symmetrical system can be used to derive the power flow equation, which is one of the most important basic equations in power system operation:
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A resistive load R on an AC power system draws power and produces a phase angle shift d between the terminal voltage V and the open-circuit voltage E. d is called the load angle (see Figure). The voltage drop across the Thevenin equivalent A purely inductive load draws no power and produces no phase-angle shift between V and E (see Figure). The terminal voltage V is quite sensitive to the inductive load current because the volt-drop jX I is directly in phase with both E and s V. You might ask, `what is the use of a load that draws no power?' One example is that shunt reactors are often used to limit the voltage on transmission and distribution systems, especially in locations remote from tap-changing transformers or generating stations. Because of the shunt capacitance of the line, the voltage tends to rise when the load is light (e.g. at night). By connecting an inductive load (shunt reactor), the voltage can be brought down to its correct value. Since the reactor is not drawing any real power (but only reactive power), there is no energy cost apart from a small amount due to losses in the windings and core.
A purely capacitive load also draws no power and produces no phase-angle shift between V and E: i.e. d 0. The system volt-drop jX I is directly in anti-phase with Es and V, and this causes the terminal voltage V to rise above E. Again you might ask what is the use of a load that draws no power?' An example is that shunt capacitors are often used to raise the voltage on transmission and distribution systems, especially in locations remote from tap-changing transformers or generating stations. Because of the series inductance of the line, the voltage tends to fall when the load is heavy (e.g. mid-morning), and this is when shunt capacitors would be connected. Shunt reactors and capacitors are sometimes thyristor-controlled, to provide rapid response. This is sometimes necessary near rapidly-changing loads such as electric arc furnaces or mine hoists. Of course the use of thyristors causes the current to contain harmonics, and these must usually be filtered.
We have seen that when the load power and current are kept the same, the inductive load with its lagging power factor requires a higher source voltage E, and the capacitive load with its leading power factor requires a lower source voltage. Conversely, if the source voltage E were kept constant, then the inductive load would have a lower terminal voltage V and the capacitive load would have a higher terminal voltage.
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The voltage `profile' and the stability of a transmission line or cable can be improved using `reactive compensation'. In the early days reactive compensation took the form of fixed-value reactors and capacitors, usually controlled by mechanical switchgear. Synchronous condensers and large generators were used in cases where it was necessary to vary the reactive power continuously. Since the 1970s power-electronic equipment has been developed and applied to extend the range of control, with a variety of methods and products.
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3.4 Synchronism:
The basis of AC transmission is a network of synchronous machines connected by transmission links. The voltage and frequency are defined by this network, even before any loads are contemplated. All the synchronous machines must remain constantly in synchronism: i.e. they must all rotate at exactly the same speed, and even the phase angles between them must not vary appreciably. By definition, the stability of the system is its tendency to recover from disturbances such as faults or changes of load. The power transmitted between two synchronous machines can be slowly increased only up to a certain level called the steady-state stability limit. Beyond this level the synchronous machines fall out of step, i.e. lose synchronism. The steady state stability limit can be considerably modified by the excitation level of the synchronous machines (and therefore the line voltage); by the number and connections of transmission lines; and by the pattern of real and reactive power flows in the system, which can be modulated by reactive compensation equipment. A transmission system cannot be operated too close to the steady-state stability limit, because there must be a margin to allow for disturbances. In determining an appropriate margin, the concepts of transient and dynamic stability are useful. Dynamic stability is concerned with the ability to recover normal operation following a specified minor disturbance. Transient stability is concerned with the ability to recover normal operation following a specified major disturbance.
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Chapter # 4
exported to the 500-kV equivalent through three 400-MVA transformers connected between buses B4 and B5. For this demo we are considering a contingency case where only two transformers out of three are available (Tr2= 2*400 MVA = 800 MVA).
Using the load flow option of the powergui block, the model has been initialized with plants #1 and #2 generating respectively 500 MW and 1000 MW and the UPFC out of service (Bypass breaker closed or simply 1). The resulting power flow obtained at buses B1 to B5 is indicated by numbers on the circuit diagram. The load flow shows that most of the power generated by plant #2 is transmitted through the 800-MVA transformer bank (899 MW out of 1000 MW), the rest (101 MW), circulating in the loop. Transformer Tr2 is therefore overloaded by 99 MVA. The demonstration illustrates how the UPFC can relief this power congestion.
The UPFC located at the right end of line L2 is used to control the active and reactive powers at the 500-kV bus B3, as well as the voltage at bus B_UPFC. It consists of a Phasor model of two 100-MVA, IGBT-based, converters (one connected in shunt and one connected in series and both interconnected through a DC bus on the DC side and to the AC power system, through coupling reactors and transformers). Parameters of the UPFC power components are given in the dialog box. The series converter can inject a maximum of 10% of nominal line-to-ground voltage (28.87 kV) in series with line L2. The numbers on the diagram show the power flow with the UPFC in service and controlling the B3 active and reactive powers respectively at 687 MW and -27 Mvar.
SIMULATION This is the Simulink model of above 500/230kv grid station. Effect of UPFC is studied such that first it is simulated without UPFC and active power on all 5 buses is noted. Then UPFC is brought into the system and active power is again noted in a similar fashion.
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The following is the simulation of the above example without UPFC. Graphs of active power and reactive power are shown. Moreover, active power is also mentioned on the buses in the diagram.
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Fig. 4.3 Active Power Metering with respect to time (Without UPFC)
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Fig. 4.4 Reactive Power Metering with respect to time (Without UPFC)
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Figure below shows the timer block and its setting in this simulation
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Reference Active Power The reference active power is the power settings that UPFC block is going to adjust over time. We have seen before that the power flowing through the bus B3 is 587 MW at steady state. Now for the elaboration purpose we adjust that to 687 to obtain a 100 MW increase in power flowing through that bus as simulation proceeds to 5 seconds. This is shown in the following figure. Reference Active Power is increased from 5.87 pu to 6.87 pu i.e. 100MW increase.
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To be observed: The active power through bus 3 which increases from 570MW to 670 MW in the interval of 5s to 6s
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To be observed:
As the reactive power was set to -27MW via Qref it is maintained at it after the switching of UPFC into the system
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Remarks:
We see that active power on all the buses is changed. On bus 1 it becomes 195MW and on bus 4 it is reduced from 900 MW to 800 MW, thus preventing transformer Tr 2 from overloading. This is a great advantage o UPFC. We can easily control the direction of active power in a power system. This was a basic example which is easy to
understand. UPFC performs equally well in complex power network. We will show this in the upcoming examples.
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To elaborate the effect of UPFC more explicitly, system is made more complex as shown below. Now there are total 9 buses. Active power on all buses is mentioned on the buses.
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With UPFC
Now two UPFCs are connected, one on each branch. Three cases are considered: Both UPFCs bypassed First connected and second bypassed Both connected
Pattern of active power flow is different each time. When UPFC is bypassed, less power lows through its branch. By connecting UPFC , large amount of power stars flowing through its branch. This is shown below.
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Fig. 4.14 Active Power Reading bus 1-5 (with UPFC both bypassed)
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Fig. 4.15 Active Power Reading bus 6-9 (with UPFC both bypassed)
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Fig. 4.16 Case modified (with UPFC 1st connected 2nd bypassed)
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B1 to B5:
Active Power (MW) along y axis on bus no 1 to bus no 5
Fig. 4.17 Active Power reading bus 1-5 (with UPFC 1st connected 2nd bypassed)
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B6 to B9:
Fig. 4.18 Active Power reading bus 6-9 (with UPFC 1st connected 2nd bypassed)
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B1 to B5:
Fig. 4.20 Active Power reading bus 1-5 (with UPFC both connected)
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B6 to B9:
Fig. 4.21 Active Power reading bus 6-9 (with UPFC both connected)
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Remarks:
Pattern of active power flow is different each time. When UPFC is bypassed, less power flows through its branch. By connecting UPFC, large amount of power stars flowing through its branch. Hence flow of active power is easily controlled with the help of UPFC.
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Chapter # 5
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The above system has 4 transmission lines. All lines have 1 UPFC each. We will see effect of UPFC on bus voltages and active and reactive power flow among themselves. We will specifically focus on voltage regulation. Simulation is carried out by first by connecting all UPFCs and then bypassing all UPFCs. The readings are tabulated as shown in the table.
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Voltage Regulation:
With UPFC BUS NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 V (p.u.) 1.001 1.003 1.002 0.9894 0.9985 0 1.003 1.002 0.9894 0.9985 1.001 0.9985 1.003 1.002 0.9894 0.9985 0 1.003 1.002 0.9894 Without UPFC V (p.u.) 1.017 1.013 1.008 0.9912 1.001 1.013 1.008 0.9912 1.001 0 1.017 0 1.013 1.008 0.9912 1.001 1.013 1.008 0.9912 1.001
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Remarks:
From above table we have seen that when we are not using UPFC, voltage at different buses is not very close to 1pu. When we are using UPFC, voltage at buses is very close to 1pu. This shows that UPFC is very helpful for us in maintaining voltage close to unity in spite of heavy load.
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Chapter # 6
Suppose in the above system, one 65km line gets out o service due to fault or repairing purpose. Now the system will definitely become unstable or less stable and unbalanced due to the dynamic change. As a result, voltage on all buses will be changed drastically and may cause damage which is undesirable. This problem can be settled with UPFC. UPFC maintains the voltage on all the buses and reduce the oscillations produced as a result o uneven change in power system. This is shown in simulation. The circuit breaker trips the line after 1 second. Circuit breaker is used to get one line out of the system.
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Remarks:
We see that at 1 second when one line got out of the system, there was severe oscillation in the system voltage. But with UPFC the system voltage did not change and remained close to 1 pu.
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Chapter # 7
CONCLUSION
Flexible AC Transmission is an emerging technology in the Power World which uses power electronic devices for reactive compensation It is meant to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network.The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is the most versatile member of the FACTS family to control power flow on power grids. A UPFC is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive power compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. It is a versatile controller which can be used to control active and reactive power flows in a transmission line. Moreover, with UPFC the voltage regulation can be achieved and system stability can be increased. In this project, we have observed the impact of UPFC upon the 500kv transmission system. We have observed that UPFC can control the direction of active power low. We have simulated two examples in chapter 4 which show that UPFC increases the amount active power in the line to which it is connected. Thus we can control the flow of active power and prevent our transmission system from the congestion. In this way performance of the power system will increase with UPFC. That was our first objective which we achieved successfully. Then we simulated a complex 500kv system and applied UPFC on various branches. We observed that the voltages at different buses were not very close to 1 pu in the system without UPFC. However, in the system with which UPFC is connected, bus voltages are very close to 1 pu. This proves that UPFC is very useful and suitable in voltage regulation. In this way performance of the power system will increase. That was our second objective which we achieved successfully. Then we checked the stability of the 500kv system with UPFC. We proceeded with the example of chapter 4 in which we made one 500kv line (out of
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two), out of service with the help of circuit breaker and observed the impact of that drastic change on the system bus voltages. We observed that in the system without UPFC the bus voltages collapsed at the instant the line got out of service and oscillations were produced in the bus voltages. Certainly this phenomenon is very undesirable because it will make the system unbalanced and unstable. The system performance will also become poor. However, with UPFC the results obtained are amazingly different and favorable. Bus voltages remain very close to 1 pu before and after the removal of line and even a single severe glitch was not observed. This is a great advantage of UPFC that it maintains the system stability in the changing circumstances and hence improves the performance of the power system. That was the third and final objective of our project which we achieved successfully. Hence we conclude that with UPFC the amount and flow of active power can be controlled, voltage regulation can be achieved and system stability can be increased. Thus we can say that UPFC is quite useful to improve the performance of the power system and we recommend Pakistan WAPDA authorities to implement UPFC in their existing power system to upgrade it and avail of its benefits.
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