Textile Science

Textile Science
V. Sivalingam
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bangalore
Textile Fibres and Their Properties
TEXTILE FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

TEXTILE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Marketing Input
q
Application Requirement
q q
Forecasting Trend Development
End use Aesthetic Requirement Functional Performance Material Preference Price Point Delivery Requirement
q q
Psychographics Price - point
q q q
Design & Styling

q q q q q q
Fibre content Yarn design and styling Fabric Structure Fabrication details Colouration Method Aesthetic Finishes Functional Finishes
Textile Production
1 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
FABRIC PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES

Aesthetics
Properties relating to visual effects, as well as those perceived by touch * Flexibility * Hand * Lusture * Pilling * Resiliency * Thermo plasticity
Durability
Properties relating to resistance to wear and destruction in use * Abrasion Resistance * Strength
* Chemical Effects * Environmental Conditions
Comfort
Properties relating to physical comfort * Absorbency * Wicking * Cover * Elasticity & Recovery Dimensional Stability
Safety
Properties relating to danger or risk of injury * Flammability * Chemical Effects
Care & Maintenance

Washing, Dry cleaning, Tumble Drying and Ironing Use of Household Bleaches, Softeners, and Optical Brighteners. Storage Condition
COMPOSITION / ORIGIN OF FIBRES

I. Natural Fibres
Classification
A. Cellulosic / Vegetable Fibres
Fibre Type
1. Cotton 2. Jute 3. Flax 4. Ramie 5. Hemp
Origin
Cotton Ball / Seed Hair Stalk Stalk Grass Stalk Cultivated or Wild Silk Worm Sheep
Animal / Protein Fibres
1. Silk 2. Wool
Mineral Fibres
Asbestos Varieties of rock Calcium and Magnesium Silicates
II. Manmade Fibres

Classification
A. Regenerated Cellulose
Fibre Type
1. Viscose Rayon 2. Acetate 3. Tri-Acetate 4. Tencel
Origin
Wood Pulp / Cotton Linter
B. Synthetic Fibres
1. Polyester 2. Nylon 3. Acrylic 4. Mod Acrylic 5. Spandex 6. Olefin 7. Glass 8. Graphite
Poly
EtheleneTeripthalate Polyamide Acrylonitrite Acrylonitrite Polyurethane Ethelene Silica, Sand, Limestone Carbon Aluminum Silver Gold
C. Metal Fibres
1. Metallic
ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE FABRICS

Abrasion Resistance
An ability to resist wear from rubbing Mainly contributes to fabric durability; Nylon is extensively used for active sports wear because it is very strong and resists abrasion extremely well.
Absorbency
An ability to take in moisture from atmosphere Expressed as a percentage of moisture regain; Moisture regain is the amount of water a dry fabric will absorb from the air under standard atmospheric condition of 65% relative humidity, 20 to 22o C temperature. Moisture Regain = Original Weight Oven Dry Weight x 100 Oven Dry Weight
Hydrophilic Fibres
Fibres, which are able to absorb water easily All Natural Cellulosic fibres Animal Protein Fibres Man Made -> Cotton, Flax, Jute -> Wool, Silk -> Viscose, Acetate & Tencel
Hydrophobic Fibres
Fibres, which are not able to absorb or has difficulty in absorbing water All synthetics are Hydrophobic in nature
Absorbency is related to many factors Skin Comfort

Little absorption of perspiration results in a clammy feeling
Static Charges Build up

Static charges can be easily build up in hydrophilic fibres, results that sparks and clinging occurs
Stain Removal
It is easier to remove stains from hydrophilic fibres because water and detergent are absorbed in to the fibre
Wicking
The ability of a fibre/fabric to spread of moisture on the surface of the fibre Based on the chemical and physical composition of the outer structure; Smooth surface reduces wicking action; Cotton is hydrophilic and also possess good wicking action; Olefin is hydrophobic but has good wicking when micro-denier in size; Wicking is desirable for jogging & exercise clothes.
Chemical Effects
An ability of fibres how they are reacting with different chemicals like acids, alkalis, organic solvents, bleaching agents etc. The effect of chemicals relates directly to the care required in cleaning, bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing process; Cotton has poor resistance to acids but excellent resistance to alkalis; Wool athletic socks turns yellow if washed with Chlorine bleaches
Dimensional Stability
An ability of a fabric to retain its shape during washing. Cellulosic fibres -> Swelling in water Wool -> Felting in washing (Relaxation of stress and strain during washing) Reduction in size -> Shrinkage Increase in size -> Growth
Elasticity
The ability to increase in length when under tension Elasticity and then return to the original length when tension released Elastic Recovery Makes a fabric more comfortable garment; Causes less seam stress; Increases the breaking strength of the fabric; Complete recovery will help to prevent bagginess occurring at elbows & knees, as well as preventing the garment become loose fitting; Spandex, rubber are Elastomeric Fibres; 300 400% Elongation; 98 100% Recovery
Flexibility: Drape
The ability of a fibre (fabric) to bend easily under its own weight Thinner the fibre (Sheer fabric) the better is the drapability Example: Acetate, Silk, Nylon and Polyester
Hand
The way a fibre (yarn or fabric) feels when handled The hand of the fibre is affected by its: a. Shape b. Surface c. Configuration 5 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
The fibre shape vary from round, flat, tri-lobed and multi-lobed The fibre surface differ from smooth, serrated or scaly The fibre configuration is either crimp or straight Type of yarn, fabric construction and finishing Process used for fabric development also affect the hand of a fabric
Resiliency or Wrinkle Resistance or Crease Resistance

The ability of a fabric to spring back to shape after being creased, twisted or distorted Fabric that has good resiliency does not wrinkle easily and therefore tends to retain its good appearance; Polyester and Wool fabrics have excellent resiliency.
Lusture
Refers to the light reflecting quality from the surface of the fabric Factors that are affecting lusture of the fabric; Crimp and Waviness in fibre; Cross sectional shape of fibre length; In man-made fibres, the degree of lusture can be controlled by a chemical ingredient (de lusturing agent Titanium Dioxide so be made bright, semi-dull and dull
Pilling
Pilling is the formation of groups of short or broken fibres on the surface of a fabric which are tangled together in the shape of tiny balls called pills Pills usually form in the areas that are rubbed such as collars; Hydrophobic fibres tend to pill much more than hydrophilic fibres.
Thermo-Plasticity
Thermoplastic fibres melts or soften when heat is applied All synthetic fibres are thermoplastic; Permanent creases and pleats can be made on fabrics containing thermoplastic fibres.
Environmental Condition
An ability of fabric how it behaves to certain exposure like sunlight, storage and wet condition Wool garments should be moth protected when stored; Nylon and silk fabrics looses its strength and colour when they exposed to prolonged sunlight.; Hence, not preferred for curtains and draperies; Cotton has poor resistance to fungus. Should not be allowed to remain wet for long periods of time
Static Charges
Natural electrical charges in textile materials These are induced when the fabrics are in dry and humid condition; Hydrophobic fibres are having natural tendency to induce static problem because or poor absorbency
Strength
Is the ability to resist stress and strain Expressed as tenacity (grams per denier); Synthetic fibres are generally stronger than natural and regenerated cellulosic fibres; Strength and abrasion resistance contributes to durability of fabric; For outerwear and uniforms and industrial applications strength is most important
Performance properties of textile fibres
COTTON
Grows in seed pot of the Cotton plant, composed 90% of Cellulose. Length of Cotton fibres varies from 2. When viewed under microscope, each fibre is a single elongated cell that is twisted and ribbon like with wide inner hollow (lumen).
Grades of Cotton fibres are based on:

Colour: From white to yellowish or grey Purity: Amount of foreign matter present Staple length: Average length of fibre
Sources:
Long stapled Cotton: South American Pima, Egyptian Cotton, Sea Island Short staple Cotton: India, Pakistan and Other Asian countries
Properties and performance of Cotton fabrics: Aesthetics:

Basically, Cotton fabrics have poor luster due to its natural colour. But it can be improved by: Using long stapled cotton fibres Mercerized and Ammonia treated fabrics have soft and pleasant luster Weave; Cotton Sateens luster due to weave structure Drape, luster, texture, hand etc are affected by type of yarn, yarn count, fabric structure and finishes. Feels cool, inelastic, soft and dry. Poor resiliency: - Cotton fabrics wrinkle easily Poor dimensional stability: - Shrink easily No problem with pilling but Cotton fabrics have lint, due to short fibres.
Durability:
Good strength and abrasion resistance; In wet condition, strength is increased by 20%; Good resistance to alkalis and organic solvents; Poor resistance to Acids; Easily attacked by fungus and mildew; Poor resistance to sunlight.
8 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Comfort
Hydrophilic, moisture regain is 8.5% Good wicking Gives cooling effect good for hot weather Absorbs moisture quickly and dries quickly Cover depends on type of yarn and yarn count. Poor elasticity and moderate recovery
Recommended care
Machine wash and dry clean (apparel) Steam of dry clean with caution (furnishing)
End uses:
Apparels: Because of Comfort / Durability / Easy Care Formal and Casual

shirts, trousers, intimate apparel and ladies dress materials, wide range of cotton / polyester blends
Furnishings: Because of Versatility, Natural comfort, Ease of Dyeing
finishing and
Towels, sheets, pillow cases, bed spreads, drapes, curtains, upholstery, slip covers and wall coverings
FLAX General Features:

Flax comes from the stem of the flax plant, and mainly composed of cellulose. The natural color of flax varies from light ivory to tan color. Medium weight fiber and fiber length varies between 2 36. Linen fabrics are lint free because no short fibers. Under microscope it is shaped like bamboo. Flax fibers are spun and twisted to form a yarn and woven the finished fabric is called Linen
Properties and performance of Linen fabrics:

Positive Features:
Excellent Strength: Twice as long as Cotton; fabric wears evenly; 20% stronger when wet condition; Good hand and high natural luster; More hydrophilic than Cotton, 12% moisture regain. v Good fabric for hot weather #1. Excellent moisture regain #2. Absorb moisture quickly and dries quickly Completely washable and dry cleanable; Highest safe ironing temperature 234 C; No pilling and static problems; Adequate dimensional stability
Negative Features:
Attacked by mildew and silver fish; Fair abrasion resistance and fair elasticity Not as durable as Cotton and Poor resiliency
Uses:
Because of its high production cost and the fact that it wrinkles easily linen is used only in limited extend in apparels. However, because linen fabrics are strong, light weight. Drape well, feel cool, and resist soiling. They are suited for higher quality fashion aspects or professional wear, summer apparel and household linen: bed, table and bath items
SILK
General Features:
Silk is a natural animal fibre composed of protein and obtained from Silk cocoons. May look in natural colour like grey or yellow because of a gum substance sericin The raw Silk that comes from the cocoons consist of fibroin (fibre) and sericin to hold filaments together Sericin is insoluble in water, it can be dissolved by strong acids and alkalies to make silk fabric soft and glossy. The removal of sericin is called de-gumming Silk is an only natural fibre available as filaments. One cocoon will yield 1000 2500 yards of filament Raw silk appears as a double fibre with an irregular surface structure. After degumming, silk appears as a single fibre, smooth, regular and transparent Major producers of Silk: China, Korea, Japan and India
Properties and performance of Silk fabrics:

Aesthetic performance:

Luster: Luxurious appearance, high brightness after sericin is removed. Drape: Light weight fibre => excellent drape gives graceful appearance to
garment which is made out of this fibre
Resiliency: Silk ranks next to wool, wrinkles hangout fairly readily but not as
quickly as wool
Hand: Luxurious hand, feels warm, crisp, smooth and dry Pilling: No problem Durability performance:
Strength: Strongest animal fibre, looses 15% - 20% when wet Abrasion resistance: Fair good depends on fabric construction Chemical effects: Good resistance to acids. Concentrated, strong acids will destroy silk; Nitric acid causes silk to become yellow; Poor resistance to alkalies; better than wool; dissolved by 5% NaOH; Damaged by substance containing chloride salts which are found in perspiration, deodorants and plain salt water; Good resistance to dry cleaning solvents; Poor resistance to chlorine bleaches
Effect of Environmental Conditions:

Poor resistance to sun light, prolonged exposure results in change of colour and destroy silk faster than Cotton and Wool; High resistance to mildew, clean silk fabrics are not attacked by moths and other insects. 11 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Comfort Performance:
Hydrophilic fibre. 11% moisture regain
Fair Wicking
Rate of absorption Rate of drying - Slow - Quick
Covering Power: Poor, fibres are thin and more yarns required producing cloth. Elasticity: Very elastic, 20% elongation at breaking point Elastic recovery: Poor recovery if stretched beyond 2% elongation Dimensional Stability: Good resistance to stretch tends to shrink when laundered or dry cleaned
Care and Maintenance:

Usually dry cleaned; may be laundered depending upon finishing agents, fabric structure and garment construction. Safe ironing temperature is 150 degree Celsius; Discolors at 120 degrees; Damaged by body oils / perspiration and water salts / from steam.
End Uses of Silk:

Silk is versatile. It may be woven or knitted in to sheerest chiffon / lingerie or the heaviest velvets.
For apparels, silk offers:

High strength, excellent drape, comfort, luxurious hand, a pleasing lusture and beautiful colours. For daytime wear, silk provides comfort, durability and wrinkle resistance to garments that proclaim the weavers consciousness of quality. Silk is rarely used to make heavy fabrics because it is expensive due to finer yarns Spun silk is less elastic, duller and stiffer than filament silk. It is used for lower grades of cloth for apparel.
In Home Furnishings, Silk fabrics provide:

A richness, dry, firm, yet yielding hand gives a pleasant tactile sensation; The brilliance of colour and the natural luster delights the eyes; In addition to their aesthetic qualities Silk furnishings are comfortable and durable; Dupion silk and Spun silk provide an interesting textural effects in upholstery and drapery fabrics.
IMPORTANT TYPES OF SILK PRODUCTS

Cultivated silk / Mulberry silk:
The smooth, even textured filament fabric; Silk worms raised under controlled environmental and nutritional conditions.
Wild Silk / Tussah, Eri, Muga Silk:

The natural tan or light brown coloured coarse filament fabrics of irregular appearance raised from un-cultivated silk worms
Dupioni Silk:
Thick and thin irregular slub yarn fabrics; Yarns are produced by an interlocking double filaments that are processed from two silk worms purposely nesting together to form one cocoon. Pure Silk: Superior silk fabrics, comprising of 100% silk without any metallic salts. Raw silk: Silk filaments reeled in the gum state (Sericin). The resultant fabrics would be dull appearance and uneven. Spun silk: Silk filaments cut in to short staple fibres from broken cocoons and made in to silk spun yarn by regular spinning process.
Types of Mulberry Silk:

Mutivoltine Origin Single Cocoon Weight Average Length (mts) Filament Denier Breaking length (mts) Luster Uniformity India 1.15 350 3-4 200 good good Bivoltine China, Japan 1.5 1030 23 900 excellent excellent
WOOL
General Features:
Wool is a natural animal fibre and composed of protein. Most wool fibres are between 2 20cm staple length and elliptical cross section. The surface of the fibre is covered with scales. Most wool is white; however it may be found in gray, brown and black.
The quality of wool depends upon

Fibre fineness; Staple length; The amount of impurities contained in the fleece; The scale structure; Natural colour; The part of fleece from which it is derived. The finer wool: - Thin, long, white and have definite crimp. The coarser wool: - Rough scale structure, straight and may be brown or black
Properties and performance of Wool fabrics:

Aesthetic Performance:
Luster: Generally dull appearance; depends on quality of fibre Drape: Worsted fabrics drape well than woolen fabrics Resiliency: Good wrinkle resistance
Hand: Wool fabrics feels warm, springy rough and dry

Pilling: Poor pilling resistance
Durability Performance:
Strength: Relatively weak fibre; Strong yarns can be produced due staple fibres. Abrasion resistance: Good to long
Chemical effects:
Poor resistance to chlorine bleaches, damaged by oxidizing bleaches; Highly resistant to organic solvents; Good resistance to acids; Poor resistance to alkalies; Good resistance to oil-borne stains; Poor resistance to water-borne stains.
Effect of Environmental Conditions:

Fair to Good resistance to sunlight; Poor resistance to mildew if exposed to damp conditions for prolonged periods; Easily damaged by carpet bleaches and moths.
Comfort Performance
Hydrophillic fibre, moisture regain 13% Wool is a warm fabric. For which, there are two reasons: 1. Poor Wicking: Rate of absorption & Rate of drying = Poor 14 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
2. Good Cover: The high level crimp and loose structure of wool yarn results air to be trapped on the outer surface of the fabric. Trapped air has insulating behaviour. Wool stretches well and has excellent elastic recovery => Wool yarns will permit garments to give with the motion of the body. Dimensional Stability:
Felting: Interlocking of fibres due to scales when subjected to wet mechanical

action. The result is progressive shrinkage
Care & Maintenance:

When subjected to the tumbling action of a washing machine, wool garments shrinks in very large extent; Dry cleaning is preferred.
Safety Performance:
Good flame resistance. Burns slowly with slight sputtering; Self-extinguishing.
End Uses:
In apparel, wool is found in outer wear, for its warmth and durability; and in mens and womens suits for its wrinkle resistance, comport and durability; and in socks, for its abrasion resistance and ability to absorb moisture. In home furnishings, wool provides resiliency, durability, hand, and dye ability for floor coverings and carpets. Wool and wool blends provide long life, excellent comfort properties, and excellent esthetics to upholstery.
Types of wool products

Virgin wool
It is processed from unused fibres obtained from fleece of sheep.
Re-processed wool
Processed fibres, yarns or fabrics that have not been used by the consumers but is broken down and converted in to fibre state to be made in to yarns and fabrics again.
Merino Wool
A fine long-stapled and soft wool fibres from the Marino sheep which is raised in Australia and New Zealand
Botany Wool
Wool from Merino sheep raised in the Botany bay area of Australia
Saxony Wool
A fine long-stapled and soft wool fabric made from sheep raised in Saxony, Germany. 15 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Shetland Wool
A fine long-stapled and soft Wool fabric from the Shetland Island in Scotland
Lambs Wool
Virgin Wool fibre clipping obtained from 7 to 8 months old lambs
VISCOSE RAYON
General Features:
Viscose Rayon is regenerated cellulose. It is a man-made fibre and it consists of almost entirely cellulose; Under Microscope, the fibre is ridged and has deeply serrated cross section; Produced in both filament and staple fibre form; Naturally white colour, can be produced in dull, semi dull and bright colors;
Properties and performance of Rayon fabrics:

Luster: Bright and luxurious appearance can be modified according to end uses by adding de-lusturing pigments during manufacturing. Drape: Better than cotton, Fair Good Resiliency: Poor, Wrinkles easily when worn Hand: Pleasant, soft and cool to touch Pilling: No problem
Strength: Poor, Loses 30 40% of strength when wet. Poor
Abrasion resistance:
Chemical Effects: Easily damaged by strong acids. Hot dilute mineral acids or cold concentrated acids damage the fabric. Good resistance to alkalies. Concentrated alkalies will cause swelling and reduce strength; Good resistance to organic solvents; Both oxidizing / reducing bleaches used in spot and stain removal.
Effect of Environmental Conditions

Lengthy exposure to sunlight weakens the fabric; Mildew depends on humidity and temperature. Resist mildew if clean and dry. Mildew discolours and weakens the fabric; May be attacked by silver fish and insects but resistant to moths.
Comfort Performance:

Absorbency: Hydrophilic; Moisture regain 13% Wicking: Good. Rate of absorption / drying: Fast. Cover: Poor Elasticity / Recovery: 20% extension & 80% recovery at 2% extension Dimensional Stability: Poor; 20 30% shrinkage Progressive Shrinkage
16
2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
Care / Maintenance:
Dry cleaning preferred for highly value added apparels; May be laundered for low priced seasonal apparels; Dries slowly, easy to iron; safe ironing temperature limit 122 degree Celsius
Safety Performance:
Burns rapidly
v High Wet Modulus (HWM) Rayon / Polynosic Rayon

To produce High Wet Strength Rayon, the fibre producer modifies the regular Viscose Rayon procedure; Higher wet / dry strength than regular Rayon; 50% strong when dry; 100% strong when wet; Absorbs less water than regular rayon and swell less; Can be given shrinkage treatment to make fabric dimensionally stable; Crease resistant finishes can be applied without loss of strength; Finishing treatment used on Cotton fabrics can also be applied to fabrics made of HWM Rayon
End uses
Viscose rayon is widely used in apparel, home furnishings and automobile tires. For apparel use rayon fibres may be used for lightweight summer blouses and skirts as readily as for heavy, bottom-weight fabrics for trousers. In home furnishings, filament and spun yarns of rayon provide fashion appeal with bright, long-lasting colors and pleasing luster. Tightly constructed heavy rayon fabrics give satisfactory durability and ease of care. Rayon is one of the least expensive fibre. Blending rayon with polyester and nylon, yields fabrics that are softer, more comfortable, and inexpensive. It is highly flammable, thus it is not used in childrens sleepwear.
ADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS

Thermo plasticity:
Can be moulded or shaped in desired form; Permanent setting of pleats by heat setting
Abrasion Resistance:
Withstands surface wear; Shows minimum wear
Resiliency:
When crushed, springs back quickly; Out standing wrinkle resistance
Strength:
High dry and wet strength
Biological Resistance:
Excellent resistance to damage by mildew, moths and sunlight
Easy Care:
Washes easily and dries quickly; Water stains penetrate fibre slowly and can be easily removed.
Disadvantages of Synthetic Fabrics:

Absorbency:
Poor absorbency due to inability of fibre to absorb moisture; Perspiration condenses between body and garment; Fabric feels either cold and clumsy or hot and uncomfortable on the body
Staining:
Oil base stains (grease, butter) penetrate the fibre and became difficult or impossible to remove.
Static Electricity:
Builds up static charges causing the fabric to cling to the body
Thermo plasticity:
Over drying or high heat application sets undesirable creases and wrinkles; High ironing temperature will melt the fabric.
POLYESTER
General Features:
Synthetic Poly Ethylene Terepthalate molecular structure; produced as filament and staple length; under microscope: Smooth, even, rod likes shape; naturally white in colour
Properties and performance of Polyester fabrics:

Luster: High natural luster, may be de-lustered Drape: Good Excellent Resiliency: Outstanding; Excellent recovery from wrinkling / creasing Hand: Feels cool, elastic, smooth and slick Pilling / Static: charges Strength: Subject to pilling and static build up; produces electric
Very good; no loss of strength when wet Good Abrasion resistance:
Effect of Chemicals
Good resistance to most acids / alkalies; Good resistance to dry cleaning solvents; Good resistance to oxidizing and reducing bleaches
Effect of Environmental Conditions

Good resistance to sunlight; Completely resistance to bacteria, fungus, mildew / moth
Comfort performance:
Absorbency: Hydrophobic; Moisture regain 0.4% Wicking: Rate of absorption is slow; Rate of drying is fast v Micro-denier Polyester - Rate of absorption & Rate of drying are fast
Cover:
Poor
Elasticity: Fair Good. Less than Nylon, Greater than Cotton and Rayon Elastic recovery: 97% recovery at 2% elongation Dimensional Stability: Excellent resistance to shrinkage and Shape retention.
Care / Maintenance:
Laundered or dry cleaned; Machine dry at low temperature; require little or no ironing. Safe ironing temperature is 163 degree Celsius. Attracts lint, Oil borne stains difficult or impossible to remove
End Use of Polyesters: v Woven fabrics

Spun yarns blended with Cotton & Rayon made in to durable press / wrinkle free fabrics. Top and bottom weight mens / womens formal / casual wears Blankets, bed spreads, curtains that match bedspreads mattress ticking, table linen and upholstery fabrics Filament yarn fabrics are used in glass curtains because polyester has excellent light resistance
v Knitted Fabrics
Majorly used filament and textured filaments knit shirt for men and blouses for women. Smooth textured filaments are used in uniforms, shirting, tricot structure; mens suitings of fine gauge polyester warp knits (Raschel) Womens dresses, blouses. Lingerie have proved very successful Furnishings such as tricot warp knit sheets, upholstery and window treatment fabrics.
v Fibre fill applications:

Hollow cross section fibres provides high resiliency and loft, durability, comfort and easy care performances are highly suitable for pillows, comforters, bedspreads, quilted house holds and apparel fabrics and winter jackets.
v Non Wovens:
Inner linings / interfacings for coats, suits and jackets, shoulder pads and mattress inner linings.
Industrial Applications:
Carpets, Pile fabrics, tyre cords, conveyor belts, tents, ropes, parachute cloths, fishing nets, sail cloths, filters, seed / fertilizer bags
Polyester Microfibre:
1. 0.5 to 1 denier / filament: Ski Jackets, Outer wear sports wear, Snow jackets 2. 0.6 to 0.7 denier / filament: Intimate apparels, Ski wear, Outer wear, Body fit, exercise clothing Micro fibres provides amazing and exciting drape / hand for high fashion womens wear. Improved wicking provides good comfort performance for intimate / body fit / sports wear
NYLON
General Features:
Synthetic Polyamide molecular structure; Produced as filaments and staple; Generally round cross-section, but can be engineered any shape; Naturally white color; The most common and heavily produced polyamides are Nylon 6, Nylon 6 6, which are nearly identical.
Properties and performance of Nylon fabrics:

High natural lusters; may be de-lustered. Good Drape; Good crease resistance, very good recovery from wrinkling or creasing; Feels cool, elastic, smooth and slick; Susceptible to pilling. Subject to static build up; produces electric charges. Exceptionally strong in both wet / dry condition; Excellent abrasion resistance. Weakened by strong acids; not affected by alkalis; Not affected by oxidizing / reducing bleach. May be harmed by Chlorine / strong oxidizing bleaches. Resistant to moths, fungi and insects Poor resistance to sunlight; prolonged exposure weakens and causes deterioration of color / strength. Poor absorbency: Hydrophobic in nature. Rate of absorption of moisture is Slow and Rate of Drying is Quick. Good Elasticity and recovery; Good Dimensional Stability: Can be heat set to maintain shape No Shrinkage May be laundered or dry cleaned; easy to launder, quick drying, Machine dry at low temperature, safe ironing temperature limit is 122 degree Celsius
Nylon in Consumer Use:

Widely used in hosiery, outer wear and house hold furnishings, in 100% fabrics/ blends / combination Mainly used for outer wear / swim wear fabrics, Ski pants and active sports wear Used for lining material in coats / jackets because of excellent durability; however, expensive
ACRYLIC
General Features:
Manufactured fibre composed of at least 85% by weight of Acrylo nitrile units; Produced in both staple and filament fibres; Round cross section or bell shaped cross section; Color; White or Off-white
Properties and performance of Acrylic fabrics:

Products bulk to lightweight fabric; Appearance & hand similar o wool; High natural luster; may be de-lustered. Good drape and crease resistance; Feels cool, elastic, smooth and slick; Susceptible to pilling. Subject to static build up; Slow absorption and Quick drying; strong in both wet / dry condition; Good abrasion resistance:
Safely bleached by all household bleaches; Good resistance to mineral acids alkalis and organic solvents Excellent resistance to sunlight and weathering; Good resistance to fungus and micro organisms and insects Produces thick, fluffy, bulk fabric to lightweight makes warmer for winter dress materials. Good resistance to flame; slowly burns; Washes well and dries quickly Easily dyed with bright colors; cheaper prices.
Acrylic in Consumer Use:

Fleece fabrics frequently used in jogging outfits and active sports wear sweaters and socks. Thick, snuggy furs that are used for coats, jackets, linings. Upholstery fabrics may be flat woven fabrics or velvets and drapery fabrics. This is an appropriate and growing end use for acrylics because of their good sunlight resistance and weathering properties.
MODACRYLIC
General Features:
Modacrylic is a manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is any long chain synthetic polymer composed of less than 85% but at least 35% by weight of Acrylonitrile units
Properties and performance of Mod acrylic fabrics:

The fabrics made from modacrylic fibre have a warm, pleasant hand, good drape, and resiliency, wrinkle resistance and strength; hence they can be used to make durable fabric. Good strength & Elasticity; Fair abrasion resistance; Fair to Good resiliency; Have good bulking power; Good fire resistance. Excellent resistance to sunlight and weather; Excellent affinities for dyes; Blends well with other fibres Hydrophobic in nature; Fair resistance to alkalis; Static and pilling are problems
Modacrylic in Consumer Use:

Major uses are Fur pile fabrics, childrens sleepwear, protective clothing for electric line personnel; Widely used in draperies, bedspreads, pillows, rugs and carpets; Sweaters, dress and suiting fabrics; Linings in coats, and jackets
SPANDEX (LYCRA)
General Features:
Segmented Poly Urethane Synthetic molecular structure; Spandex is a salt, flexible rod with little internal structure; cross section varies dog-bone / peanut shapes; produced as mono filament / multi filaments
Properties and performance of spandex (lycra) fabrics:

Fibres may be stretched at least 200% before they break and rapidly recover when tensile forces are released; Power stretch fabrics in which the high restrictive forces of the electrometric cloth can shape and control body contours in particularly for Body fit garments Excellent elastic properties up to 500% Elongation at break. 100% recovery; Very good resiliency and highly flexible; Very good abrasion resistance. Good dimensional stability in wet; however some types shrink exposure to high temperature Good resistance to house hold bleaches and most acids; damaged by hot alkalis cause rapid deterioration; resistant to dry cleaning solvents; Superior dye ability with brilliant colors. Poor strength; poor absorbency; White spandex becomes yellowish from prolonged exposure to air; Ironing should be done quickly with low temperature setting
Spandex in Consumer Use: v Lycra Adds life to clothes

Lycra in swimwear, innerwear and active sports wear means lasting fit with comfort and freedom of movement; Lycra in tailored clothes and fashion wear freedom of movement, extra comfort and an elegant drape; It also improves the quality of Knitted / Woven fabrics as it prevents bagging and accelerate wrinkle recovery; Lycra in hosiery (Tricot Knit Lingere) provides improved comfort, wrinkle free, luxurious smooth and soft feel and define the shape and body without binding
YARN CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES

Most apparel and furnishing fabrics are produced from yarns. A yarn is defined as linear strand of twisted fibers. Made from natural staple or man-made filament fibers.
Properties and characteristics of yarn depend on:

Composition of fiber Length of fiber (staple or filament) Type of yarn (spun or filament) Count (thickness or fineness) Number of strands of yarn (single or plied) Amount of yarn twist Direction of yarn twist Construction of yarn (simple, complex or textured)
Selection of yarns for fabrics depends on:

Performance expectation of fabric End use of fabric Type of fabric Need or demand of fabric Cost of fabric
Spun yarns:
Composed of staple fibers; Made from natural cotton, flax, or wool staple fibers; Made from natural (silk) or man made filaments which are cut in to short lengths. Bulkier than filament yarns; More hairiness and fuzzy appearance; fiber ends protrude from surface; more imperfections or irregularities More amount of twist than filament yarns; Rough or soft to touch depends on amount of twist; Dull appearance than filament yarns
Filament yarns:
Made from natural silk or man made filament fibers; Fine and smooth and more pliable than spurn yarns; More uniform in diameter than spun yarns; Provides lustrous and shiny appearance; Loosely twisted; Filaments can be separated when untwisted and can be counted; Produce high seam and yarn slippage; Stronger than spun yarns of the same diameter and fiber content
Yarns-construction and properties
YARNS- CONSTRUCTION AND PROPERTIES

Yarn - Defined as linear strand of twisted fibers; made from natural staple or man-made filament fibers. Yarns are the basic materials that are used in the production of woven and knitted fabrics.
Properties and characteristics of yarn depend on

Composition of fiber Length of fiber (staple or filament) Type of yarn (spun or filament) Count (thickness or fineness) Number of strands of yarn (single or plied) Amount of yarn twist Direction of yarn twist Construction of yarn (simple, complex or textured)
Selection of yarns for fabrics depends on

v Performance expectation of fabric v End use of fabric v Type of fabric v Need or demand of fabric v Cost of fabric
Characteristics of spun yarns

Composed of staple fibers; Made from natural cotton, flax, or wool staple fibers; Made from natural (silk) or man made filaments which are cut in to short lengths; Bulkier than filament yarns; More hairiness and fuzzy appearance; Fiber ends protrude from surface throughout the length; More imperfections or irregularities; More amount of twist than filament yarns; Dull appearance than filament yarns; Rough or soft to touch depends on amount of twist; Provide good covering power
Characteristics of Ring Spun yarn

High parallelisation of fibers; Helical orientation of fibers in all areas; Compact yarn structure; High yarn hairiness; Low yarn stiffness; Good yarn strength; Poor evenness; More imperfections and irregularities; Fair abrasion resistance; Low insulation; Produced wide range of yarn counts; Can be used wide range of end uses like fabrics for apparel, home furnishings and industrial applications. Low pilling propensity; Low surface roughness; Moderate thermal retention; Medium softness 25 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
Characteristics of carded spun yarns

Made from short staple cotton fibbers; Coarser or thicker yarns; Uneven yarn; more imperfections/irregularities; Produce loose or napped fabric structure; Dull appearance or uneven look
Characteristics of combed yarn

Made from long staple cotton fibers; Smooth and finer yarn; More uniformity; less imperfections and irregularities; More bright and even look
Spun Yarn Manufacturing

Ring spinning
All staple fibres must be subjected to certain mechanical processing steps during yarn manufacture. The processing of the fibres may be by the cotton spinning system or by the wool spinning system. The two systems differ in that their machinery has been designed to operate with different fibre types. The cotton spinning spinning system machines is made to process short, strong and smooth fibres. The wool spinning system is designed to operate on long, weak and crimped fibres; however, the basic steps of processing are essentially the same. The processing of staple fibres in to yarn requires the following steps. Blow room process Carding Drawing Combing Roving Spinning : : : : : : sorting, opening, separating, cleaning, and blending of fibres intensive cleaning through individualization of fibres alignment of fibres through doubling and drafting of fibres micro cleaning and alignment of fibres through parallelization attenuating drawn slivers twisting drafted roving in to yarn
Blow room process

Cotton fibres that have been compressed into large bales are delivered to the spinning mill from a number of suppliers. These fibres differ in quality and spin able properties like staple length, fineness, flexibility, strength and trash content. In order to insure uniformity and quality of the product, the spinner must sort the fibers as to grade, remove the impurities like dirt, leaves and sand particles, and blend the fibres from different bales. This is done by feeding fibres from different bales in to the chute of the opener, an enclosed chamber containing a rotating cylinder equipped with spiked teeth or set of oscillating toothed bars. The tufts are pulled apart so the fibres are loosened from each other. At the same time, impurities and trashes are separated from the fibres. At the end of this process the bulk of fibres either converted in to thick lap or opened loose fibres are fed into a carding process by means of chute feed system.
Carding
In carding the tufts of fibres are individualized by means of carding action for efficient removal of fine trash particles. The carding action is achieved by the fibre tufts caught between a cylinder which is covered with fine needles and flat strips. The cylinder and flat strips rotate at different speeds so that the fine needles individualize the fibers effectively. The sheet of carded fibres is drawn through funnel in to a soft, bulky untwisted strand called a sliver.
Drawing
Six or more slivers are fed to the drawing frame, where they are combined, drafted and condensed in to single sliver. The drawing frame contains three or four drafting rollers rotating at successively increasing speeds. The slivers are flattened, stretched out (drawn) and re combined as they pass through the rollers. The final thin web is pulled through a funnel and condensed into a soft and bulky sliver similar to the original sliver. However, the resultant drawn sliver is six or more times longer than original sliver.
Combing
For producing yarns for fine quality fabrics with better uniformity, luster; less hairy texture and strength, carded slivers are subjected to combing process. Prior to this process the carded slivers are fed into lap former where they are reformed in to thin fibrous web, later it is processed in combing. During combing process the short fibres, micro dust particles, neps and other foreign matters are removed at maximum extent. Combed sliver is better aligned, more uniform than carded sliver.
Roving
The carded or combed sliver is delivered to the ROVING FRAME. Here the sliver is passed through another set of drafting rolls, which produce roving by reducing the diameter and increasing the length of the material. A small amount of twist is inserted in the material at this stage known as roving as it is being wound onto a rotating spindle. The roving is about one-eighth the diameters and eight times the length of the sliver.
Spinning
The roving is mounted on the RING SPINNING FRAME and fed through another set of drafting rolls. The final pair of rollers spins at about thirty times the speed of the first pair. The highly attenuated yarn is fed onto a high-speed spindle by a traveler, which rotates on a ring surrounding the spindle. The traveler rotates at a speed slightly slower than the spindle and is capable of an up-and down-motion .the difference in speed between the traveler and the spindle determines the degree of the twist of the yarn. The oscillating motion of the traveler winds the yarn into a neat package. A more rapid method of preparing spun yarns uses an integrated spinning frame which converts sliver to yarn without the necessity for drawing and drafting .the steps in processing the fibers are essentially the same as in the standard process, but they take place in one machine. Yarns made in this manner are not as fine as those made in the standard way, but processing costs are greatly reduced. It is obvious that with so many steps involved in the spinning of the fiber to yarn manufacturers are constantly searching for more rapid and expensive methods. The integrated carding device and the integrated spinning frame mentioned above are the two of the means for reducing cost and increasing productivity. They are currently used for making coarser yarns, but in the future they may be used more and more for finer yarns.
Open end spinning

The most important new development in spinning technology is open end (OE) spinning, a process for converting strands of untwisted fiber (sliver) directly into yarn. The card sliver is fed through a set of fluted rollers and beaters which open and draft the sliver so that the fibers are more or less separated from one another .the loose strand is then fed onto the inner surface of a rotating funnel, and is removed through the center of the funnel. Centrifugal force maintains the fibers on the surface of the cone, while the drawing action of the take off rolls pulls the yarn out .The change in direction of motion, from the circular path around the funnel to the lateral path through its center, inserts twist into the yarn. The major advantages of OE spinning are high production speed (over 10,000m/min), reduced power consumption, and improved evenness of yarn and the ability to produce larger packages. This latter is important to the fabric manufacturer, since it means fewer knots in the final product and greater uniformity of supply yarn. The major disadvantages of OE spinning are the limited range of production capability (from yarn size no.6 to no 24.) and the requirements for the careful cleaning of the fibers before spinning. Small amounts of foreign material have a more deleterious effect on the production speed and yarn properties in OE spinning than in ring spinning. The performance properties of OE spun yarns are compared to those of ring spun yarns.
Characteristics of Open- end /Rotor Spun Yarns
Low parallelisation of fibers; Helical orientation of fibers in inner core; Less compact yarn structure; Low yarn hairiness; More rigid; Poor yarn strength; Better evenness; Less imperfections and irregularities Better abrasion resistance; Moderate insulation; High pilling propensity; Fair surface roughness; Produced only courser yarn counts; Heavy weight apparel and home furnishing; Moderate thermal retention; Better softness.
Characteristics of Dreff / Air-jet Spun Yarns

Parallelisation of fibers high at yarn core and less at yarn edge; axial orientation in yarn core; Less Compact yarn structure. Low yarn hairiness; Low yarn stiffness; yarn strength better than OE-spun and inferior than ring spun; less evenness than OE- spun yarn. More imperfections and irregularities than OE-spun and better than ring spun yarn; High abrasion resistance; Good insulation. Pilling propensity less than OE- spun; Medium surface roughness; Best thermal retention; Better softness than OE& ring spun yarn; Yarn count is not as fine as ring spun yarn, but finer than OE-spun; can be used apparel, bedding and furnishing fabrics
Characteristics of Woolen Yarns

Made from short staple wool fibres; Coarse / bulky / thicker/ fuzzy; more hairiness; Uneven yarn; more imperfections/irregularities; Produce loose or napped fabric structure; Dull appearance or Un even look; Produce insulating properties and providing warmth; Resist wrinkling and do not maintain desired crease
Characteristics of Worsted Yarns

Made from long staple wool fibers; Smooth, finer yarns and highly twisted; More uniformity/ less imperfections and irregularities; Good insulating properties & providing less warmth; Maintain desired creases and offers better formability and shape retention
Single-Ply yarn
A yarn composed of single strand, which is produced by spinning process; When Un twisted, the fibers can be separated
Monofilament Yarn
A single strand of filament yarn; cannot be separated, it is an indivisible component.
Multifilament Yarns
Yarns are composed of two or more filament strands twisted together to form one yarn; when untwisted, each filament can be counted. 29 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Characteristics of filament yarns

Made from natural silk or man made filament fibers; Fine and smooth and more pliable than spurn yarns; More uniform in diameter than spun yarns; Provides lustrous and shiny appearance; Loosely twisted; Filaments can be separated when untwisted and can be counted; Produce high seam and yarn slippage; Poor covering power; Stronger than spun yarns of the same diameter and fiber content.
TEXTURED FILAMENT YARNS

Textured yarns are end result of physical, chemical or thermal manipulation of filament yarns; Texturizing produces a permanent change in physical structure of the yarn. Texture varies from soft to crisp; Good covering power than untextured yarns; Spongy and springy feel; Better shape retention; Good stretch and elongation recovery; Good resistance to undesirable crease and wrinkles. Better strength and abrasion resistance; higher bulk without added weight; Provides insulating properties; Improves resistance to yarn and seam slippage; Improved absorbency and dyeing properties; Better dimensional stability and opaque fabric structure
Types of textured yarns Stretch yarns

Man made filaments can be treated to produce yarns with some degree of stretch and recovery by chemical and mechanical methods. The resultant yarn will have the following qualities: Good bulk and stretch characteristics Complete recovery Produced soft hand
Stretch and recovery of yarn is controlled by:

v v v v v The amount and direction of twist in the yarn Single or plied yarns Amount of false twist induced Heat set temperature Degree of tension and feed roll mechanism
Following texturization process are used to produce stretch yarns: 1. False twister 30 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
2. Edge crimping 3. Gear crimping 4. Stuffer box
Bulk yarns
Bulk yarns are created and processed by nonlinearly and loop formation in yarn structure; the process introduces crimp, loops, curls and waviness in the yarn. These yarns are produced by Air texturization Knit and de knit method The resulting yarns of these processes are bulked and twisted.
Characteristics:
Made of staple or filament fibers; Increased bulkiness, loftiness and volume without added weight; Improved covering power due to bulkiness; Retain bulkiness both stressed and relaxed conditions; Provides warmth/ insulating properties; Reduces strength and luster.
Methods of Texturization
False-Twist
In FALSE-TWIST texturing, the yarn is passed continuously through the false-twist apparatus. Production rates of 175 to 225 meters per minute (190- 250 ypm) are common, with rates of 400 mpm (440 ypm) attainable on low denier-yarns. Untwisted multi filament yarn is fed through the delivery rolls to the twister, which may be of the spindle type or friction type. In the spindle twister, the yarn is looped over a pin within a hollow cylinder. Rotation of the cylinder inserts the twist in the yarn. In the friction twister, the yarn is caught between rotating disks, which insert the twist. In either device, the section of yarn between delivery rolls and the twister is a high degree of twist, from 70 to 100 turns per inch. While twisted, the yarn is heated near its transition temperature by the heater and then allowed to cool as it passes the twister. Beyond the twister, the torque on the yarn is released and the filaments partially untwist. The filaments of the yarn now have been given a permanent crimp. The textured yarn is passed over the take-up-rolls and wound on packages. False-twist textured yarns attain a residual twist, either S or Z, so they tend to kink in processing. To overcome this, manufacturers often apply S and Z twist yarn together to produce a balanced double yarn.
Stuffer Box
The delivery roll into a narrow, heated box forces the feed yarn. The heated filaments are crushed into an accordion like configuration, and removed by the take-up rolls. The treated fibers retain a saw tooth shape. Stuffer-box texturing is slower than false-twist texturing, but is better suited to heavy deniers such as carpet yarn and tow. 31 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
Gear Crimp
Another texturing process based on crushing the heated filaments, gear crimping, and simply passes the yarn a set of heated, toothed gears. The filaments are deformed into a saw tooth shape much as in stuffer-box method. Gear crimping (figure 18.10) is not popular as other methods because critical control of the temperature and pressure are required to prevent breakage of the filaments.
Air Jet
A high velocity jet of hot turbulence air stream textures yarns undergoing this method. The yarn is fed into a bulking chamber where it is blown about by turbulent jet of air steam so that individual filaments are looped and curled about each other. The process does not require that the filaments be heat-set, so it can be used for non-thermoplastic fibers such as rayon. It has also been used to texture glass yarns for use in drapery. Airjet methods generally increase the apparent volume of the yarn without greatly increasing the stretch.
Egdge Crimp
Drawing of the thermoplastic yarn over a hot knife-edge, as shown in the figure 18.12, as the yarns are passed over the heated edge, the lower portion of the filaments in contact with the metal is heated, and the molecules in this region lose their orientation. This produces a fiber in which one portion has the characteristics different from the other. The dissimilarities in the physical properties cause the filament to coil much like wool fibers. Edge-crimped yarns have a high degree of stretch with a little tendency to twist. It is possible to simulate a knife-edged textured yarn by drawing a strip of paper or a ribbon across the edge of a scissors and causing a strip to curl. Note that the resulting yarn is quite bulky and has a high degree of stretch.
FANCY / NOVELTY YARNS

Novelty Yarns are single or plied yarn structures characterized by intentionally introduced irregularities in size, twist and multi colored effects.
Novelty yarn construction

Base yarn to control length and stability Effect yarn to add texture and aesthetic value Binder yarn to hold effect yarn with the base yarn
Texture and aesthetics of novelty yarns depends on

Changing type and count of yarn Changing the amount of twist / direction of twist Adding metallic yarns Adding different colored yarns
Characteristics of novelty yarns

Enhance texture and design to fabric; Produces surface interest, variation in styling and unusual appearance in fabric; Hand varies soft to light and harsh to rough; Strength varies different part of the fabric; Un-uniform thickness throughout the fabric; Uneven performance in wear; Reduced abrasion resistance; Pilling and snagging is critical problem.
TYPES OF NOVELTY YARNS

Boucle Yarn
A three-ply yarn with small, tight loops protruding from the body of the yarn at widely spaced intervals.
Brushed / Napped Yarn

A staple yarn in which the short fibres of the yarn are brushed to the surface to form a soft bulked effect.
Chenille Yarn
A yarn with pile fibres held between plied core yarns producing a hairy or velvety effect.
Corkscrew Yarn
A two-ply yarn consisting of one slack twisted and one hard-twisted fine yarn. The different size yarns are twisted together at a different rate with the thinner yarn twisting around the thicker yarn. TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Flock / Flake Yarn

A single yarn in which round or elongated tufts of fibres are inserted at regular intervals. The tufts are held in place by the twist of the base yarn.
Nub Yarn
A multiple-ply yarn in which one yarn is twisted around the other yarn several times forming a built-up enlarged or knotted effect on the surface of the base yarn.
Ratine Yarn
A core yarn with a rough surface effect in an over all appearance in which the small loops are closely spaced and securely twisted to the core yarn.
Seed Yarn
A tiny, round or oval enlarged nub produced by crimping and twisting a yarn repeatedly over a base yarn at regular intervals.
Slub Yarn
A thick and thin yarn with randomly spaced soft, lofty portions produced by irregular intervals of twist and lack of twist in the yarn formation.
Spiral Yarn
A two-ply yarn consisting of the staple twisted soft, thick yarn and one hardtwisted fine yarn. The thick yarn is twisted and wound spirally around the fine yarn.
Splash Yarn
An elongated enlargement or nub produced by crimping and twisting a yarn over base yarn at a regular intervals.
YARNS QUALITY PARTICULARS

Yarn count /size/ fineness
Yarn count expresses the fineness or linear density of yarn. It is indicated by a numerical value. It is the relationship between length and weight.
1. Direct yarn Numbering

Fineness of yarn is measured in weight per unit length. In this case length is a constant factor and weight is a variable.
Denier
Defined as weight in grams of 9000 meters length of yarn. As the yarn number increases, the yarn gets thicker or coarser. Mainly used for filament yarns.
Tex
Defined as weight in grams of 1000 meters length of yarn. As the yarn number increases, the yarn gets thicker or coarser. Applicable for all types of fibres, yarns and global markets.
Decitex
Defined as weight in grams of 10000 meters length of yarn. As the yarn number increases, the yarn gets thicker or coarser. Applicable for all types of fibres, yarns and global markets.
2. Indirect yarn Numbering

In this system fineness of yarn is measured in length per unit weight. In this case weight is a constant factor and length is a variable.
Cotton count Ne
Defined as number of hanks weigh in 1 pound weight of yarn 1 Hank = 840 yards As the yarn number increases, the yarn gets thinner or finer. Mainly used for cotton spun yarn, silk spun yarn, man- made / synthetic spun yarn and cotton/synthetic blended spun yarns.
Metric count Nm
Defined as number of units weigh in 1 kilo gram weight of yarn 1 unit = 1000 meters
As the yarn number increases, the yarn gets thinner or finer. Mainly used for woolen and worsted yarns.
End- uses of yarn counts Cotton yarn count

1s 20s 21s 40s 41s 80s Coarser counts Carded Medium counts Carded/combed Finer counts Combed Furnishings, towels, and denims Shirtings, bottom weights and Furnishing Fine quality shirtings & womens dress materials
80s-more
Super fine counts Womens Sheer fashion fabrics Combed
Filament yarn count

Yarn denier 40 -70 75 120 140- 200 250 -520 600- 840 1040 End Use Sheer hosiery, Tricot lingerie, blouses, shirts, sheer curtains Crepe, chiffon, georgette, satins Mens / womens wear medium weight Outer wear, draperies Upholstery Carpets, some knitting yarns
1. Plied yarn
A yarn composed of two or more single strands that are twisted together; when untwisted, single strands can be counted; Plied yarns are identified as two, three, or four ply yarns
Objectives: Yarns plied to
Blending of different fiber yarns; Combine spun and filament yarns; Introduce textured or novelty yarns; Io improve the strength of yarn; Minimize irregularities; Utilize multi strands of fine yarns to produce thick strand; Modify texture and color composition 36 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Characteristics of Plied yarns:

Thicker, heavier and courser; Differ in count; Less flexible than single yarn; Affect drape of the fabric; May differ in amount of twist and direction of twist
2. Cord/ Cable-ply yarn

A multiple ply yarn, which is composed of two or more plied yarns are twisted together; 3,6-ply cord yarn indicates that there are three plies in the yarn construction; each of the three plies contains six single strands.
3. Core-spun yarn
A yarn which has one type of fiber wrapped around the another yarn. The structure consists of a core, which could be spandex or any other type yarn, and outer layer usually of natural, man-made or blended fiber yarn. The inherent property of yarn is influenced by inner core; the outer layer determines the hand and texture.
YARN TWIST
Twist, the spiral arrangement of fibres around the yarn axis; Twist binds the fibres together and contributes strength to the yarn.
Amount of Twist
The amount or degree of yarn twist is measured in number of turns per inch (TPI). The amount of twist varies with Staple length of the fiber Count of the yarn End use of the fabric
Degree of yarn twist the following characteristics of fabrics

Hand Appearance Texture Drape Durability
Amount of yarn twist and end uses

Low twist Napping twist Average twist Voile twist Crepe twist Filament yarns; Smooth 2-3 tpi Warp; 12 tpi Bulky, soft and weak Weft; 6-8 tpi Warp; 25-30 tpi Most common, smooth, Weft; 16-20 tpi Regular, durable and comfortable High twisted singles 35-40 tpi Finer yarns, strong and harsher are plied with 16-18 tpi hand Singles 40-80 or more tpi are Snarling or kink plied with 2-5 tpi Fabrics with good drape and texture
Direction of yarn twist

S Twist, when held in vertical position and twist flows up wards in left-hand direction. Z Twist, when held in vertical position and twist flows upwards in right-hand direction. Direction o f twists mainly affects light reflecting qualities, texture and hand of the fabrics. Z twist is more common in both woven and knits.
Blends and Combinations

Single yarns composed of different mixture of two or more fibres are called blended yarns. Blends are usually spurn yarns, however it is possible to combine two or more filament yarns to produce a filament blend. Fabrics produced from blended yarns are also called blends. Yarns produced from fibre blends in order to improve their properties by drawing upon the best qualities of both fibres or to reduce cost of the product. A blend of polyester and cotton, for example, obtains high strength and wrinkle resistance from the polyester and comfort from cotton. An acrylic/ wool blend can provide a comfortable and bulky cloth at lower cost than 100% wool fabric. A blend fabric is one in which all the yarns are a homogeneous and intimate mixture of two or more fibres. It is possible to make a woven fabric in which the warp yarns are different from the weft yarns. It is properly known as combination fabric. An example of this construction is an apparel fabric in which the warp yarns are 60-40 polyester/viscose blend yarn and weft yarns are 100% filament polyester. The polyester filament, stronger and more dimensionally stable. The spun yarns are more comfortable than filament yarns, and provide a better hand and surface texture to the fabric. In this case, the combination fabric would perform better than 100% polyester, a polyester/ viscose blend or 100% viscose fabric.
Fabric manufacturing
FABRIC MANUFACTURING
Preparatory process for weaving
The yarns as manufactured and packaged are not in the optimum condition to be used produce fabrics. After yarn formation, both spun and continuous filament yarns are not immediately usable in fabric manufacturing. Package size, build and other factors make it necessary for the yarn to be further processed to prepare it to be handled efficiently during fabric manufacturing. For weaving, many yarns are presented simultaneously in the form of warp sheet. These Yarns are taken from packages called beams. Shuttle looms need a special weft yarn package, pirn or quill, which fits in shuttle. In case of shuttle less looms use yarn from large package called cheeses or cones. The yarn package as it comes from spinning must be repackaged to meet the particular needs and demands of the fabric manufacturing. A flow chart outlining the steps in the preparation of yarn for weaving is given in the fig. WINDING o Warp winding or Cheese / Cone winding o Weft winding or Pirn winding WARPING SIZING DRAWING IN DENTING - IN WEAVING
The essential features of good warp preparation are as follows:

The yarn must be uniform, clean, and free from knots. The yarn sufficiently strong to withstand the stress and friction of weaving without excessive end breakage. Knots should be of standard type and size, enabling them to pass easily through the heald eyes and reeds of the looms. The warp must be uniformly sized and the amount of size added must be sufficient to protect the yarn from abrasion at the harness and reed so as to prevent the formation of a hairy surface on the warp threads. The ends of warp must be parallel and each must be wound on the loom beam at an even and equal tension. TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
WARP WINDING
Objectives
To transfer yarn from spinner bobbin to another suitable package for warping machines To remove irregularities or imperfections like thick or thin places, slubs, nebs or loose fibers from the yarn
Winding requirements
The fault level in the yarn must be reduced to an acceptable level The yarn must not be damaged in any way in the winding process The package size, shape and build must be most technologically suitable for the particular end use The package size should be controlled to meet the particular economic requirement
FLOW OF MATERIAL AND WORKING PRINCIPLES OF WARP WINDING Guides

It is necessary to control the yarn path during winding operation due to ballooning They are made up of hard smooth steel or ceramic
Tension devices
Yarn tension plays an important role in winding. Excessive tension can damage the yarn whereas low tension can lead to loose package which will not unwind smoothly The tensioning device must be reliable and easily threaded
Yarn guides Tension controllers Stop motions Traverse motions Package drive. Stop motions
During winding process it is necessary to stop winding if a yarn breaks or the yarn supply is exhausted. Usually the yarn is made to support a light feeler. If the yarn breaks the feeler moves and causes the package drive to be disconnected.
Traverse motions
The to and fro movement of yarn as it is laid on to a package usually called traverse or chase is controlled by a moveable guide. There are two basically different types of packages that are commonly produced
Types of Yarn Packages

1) Cone: This comprises 1 or more thread, which are laid very nearly parallel to layers already existing in the package. It may be tapered in both sides and package weight varies from 1-2 Kgs. 2) Cheese: This type usually consists of a single thread, which is laid in the package at an appreciable helix angle so that the layers cross one another to yield stability. It may be in cylindrical form and weight of the package varies from 1 2 Kgs The traversing necessary to build a cone or a cheese is slightly different. Due to the difference in geometry between the tubular cheese package and the conical cone package, the angle and spacing of traverse are constant in case of the cheese but vary in the case of the cone. 41 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
In applications where the package wind angle is important, such as yarn for weft in shuttle less weaving, it is important to ascertain and maintain a critical wind angle to prevent, or at least reduce, a condition wherein many coils of yarn unwind at a time from the package. This condition is known as slough-off. It is also important that the wind angle be such that the force required to remove the yarn remain constant. If fabric design needs for yarn dyeing then yarn is wound on a special tube, which facilitates dye penetration in to the package. After dyeing the yarn is normally rewound and sent to the next operation.
WEFT WINDING
If the yarn is to be used as weft in shuttle looms it must be repackaged on a pirn. The pirn is designed to rest within the shuttle.
Objectives
Removal of slubs and weak places during processing Productions of tighter packages have more yarns per pirn. This reduces no of pirn changes during weaving
Yarn guides Tension controllers Stop motions Traverse motions Package driver
Yarn guides
They are made up of hard smooth steel or ceramic It is necessary to control the yarn path during winding operation due to ballooning
Tension devices
Yarn tension plays an important role in winding. Excessive tension can damage the yarn whereas low tension can lead to loose package which will not unwind smoothly The tensioning device must be reliable and easily threaded It must be easily adjustable and not to be affected by heat The operating surface must be smooth and must not be affected by oil or dirt
Stop motions
During winding process it is necessary to stop winding if a yarn breaks or the yarn supply is exhausted. Usually the yarn is made to support a light feeler. If the yarn breaks the feeler moves and causes the package drive to be disconnected.
Traverse motions
To produce these packages require a traversing mechanism on the winding machine to give correct build. The to and fro movement of yarn as it is laid on to a package usually called traverse or chase is controlled by a moveable guide.
WARPING
The purpose of warping is to arrange a convenient no of warp yarns that can be collected in a sheet form and wound on to a warpers beam
There are two types of warping

1) Beam warping: it is used for long runs of grey fabrics and simple patterns of colored yarns. It can be used to make warp sheets. The total amount of colored yarns involved is less than 15% of the total
2. Sectional warping or pattern warping: it is used for short runs especially for
fancy pattern fabrics where the amount of colored yarn is more than 15% of the total. 43 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
The warping machine consists of creel, a head stock and control devices The main purpose of the creel is to hold the supply package of cone or cheeses. It is usual to make the creel package of such a size as to produce an integral no of beams. Since creeling takes a considerable time, it is essential to make it possible to transfer from one creel to another and this may be done by moving the headstock with respect to some fixed creels or by making the creels with respect to the fixed head stocks. In making the warp, each end of the tape like section is threaded through tension devices, stop rotation, leasing rods, contracting vee reed and then is led over a measuring roller to the drum. Tension devices: it is necessary to control tension such that all ends are as nearly alike as possible. The tensions are not high and it is usually sufficient to apply just enough to prevent the yarn snarling and entangling. Each end has to be controlled; therefore one tension device per end is needed. Stop motions: if any warp end breaks the mentioned should be stopped immediately. It is necessary to have a stop motion since a good warp should not contain many broken ends. Consequently, any stop motion must be working in such a way as to allow sufficient time for any stop to occur before the broken end reaches the headstock. Measuring roller: it is most desirable specially in pattern warping, to control the length of the warp wound and a measuring roller is used in combination with a suitable counting device to stop the machine at the appropriate delivered length.
SIZING
In the weaving process, the warp yarns are subjected to rubbing and chafing against various metallic parts of loom by threaded through backrest, drop wires, harness and reed. They are constantly being rubbed together during shedding; they are subjected to tension constantly as well as intermittently during let-off, take-up, shedding and beat-up. All of these lead to increase the end breakage level during weaving, which should be minimized. Thus, it is desirable to produce as high quality warp as possible to with stand the excessive rubbing, stress and strain in weaving.
Objectives
To improve strength and abrasion resistance of the warp yarns by causing the fibers to adhere together. To make smooth and to lubricate the warp yarns so that there is minimum friction where they rub together various parts in the weaving process.
Sizing ingredients Adhesives:

Potato starch Starch from corn, wheat, rice etc Carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC) Ploy-vinyl alcohol (PVA)
Lubricants:
Mineral waxes, oils Vegetable waxes, oils Animal fats (tallow/ soap
Additives:
Salicylic acid Zinc chloride Phenol Emulsifier
THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS IN CHOOSING SIZE INGREDIENTS ARE:

The recipe should be that which gives fewest end breaks It should be that which permits easy desizing It should give good fabric characteristics It should be compatible with the machinery It should not cause any health hazard It should not cause any degradation of the textile material The cost of sizing should be minimum
Warping beams are used to supply a sheet of yarn to the size box. The size box is used to apply the size liquor to the yarn. The warp sheet is guided through the solution by means of the immersion roller. Then its passed through the squeeze rollers where the yarns are pressed to penetrate the desired percentage of the size material in the yarns and squeeze out excess size. The size box temperature is usually maintained uniformly by means of steam pipes and the steam flow is regulated to control the temperature. It is also necessary to control the 45 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
level of solution in the size box as well as concentration of size is kept as constant as possible to assure both correct and uniform size pick up by the warp yarns. The drying section determines the maximum effectiveness of sizing process. It is required to dry the wet sized yarn rapidly, thoroughly and uniformly. There are different methods of drying system employed Multi cylinder drying Hot air-drying Infra red drying
On a multi cylinder machine, it is possible to control accurately the drying temperatures to which given sheets of yarns are subjected. In practice, it is found desirable to increase the temp during the first phase of drying and to decrease it during the last phases. A typical range of temperature used is from 80- 150C.The first three or four cans are usually coated with Teflon. This prevents the excessive size from building up on the cans. In order to prevent the adhesion between the yarns it is necessary to separate each sized end from the others before the warp can be used for weaving. To separate the ends the out going sheet is divided into 2 sections the Lease rods are used to divide the main sheet as described. A single comb is used to maintain the division of sheets into separate ends and to position them for winding on the beam. The comb is usually an expanding one that enables the no of ends per unit and width to be controlled
Factors that effect the properties of sized yarns

Lubricant added to the adhesive as part of the recipe Adhesive type Recipe (as % of adhesive and % of lubricant etc) Size add-on or size pick-up (the amount of size penetrates on the yarn) Operational conditions such as yarn speed, temperature of drying, yarn tension etc Weave room relative humidity. The warp yarn sheet is now ready to be put on the loom beam. It is threaded through an expansion or zigzag comb that is adjusted to allow the warp sheet to come to the width required to fill the loom beam. The yarn is wound on to the loom beam at the headstock in a manner similar to that in the beaming operation. TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
DRAWING-IN AND TYING-IN

The next operation is dependent upon the current beam (or lack of beam) on the loom. If the new warps corresponds one for one in number of ends and weave pattern with warp presently in place, the operation of tying-in is performed. Tying-in is merely the cutting-off of the old warp and end-to-end tying of the yarns from the new beam to the corresponding warp yarns already in place on the loom. This operation generally takes place at the loom. When the mills producing long runs of the same fabric, tying-in is most prevalent. There are relatively inexpensive portable machines which can tie-in the new warp at a rate of up to 600 ends / minute. If the new warp does not correspond exactly to the old warp or the loom does not have a warp begin with, then drawing-in must be performed. Drawing in is the process of providing each end with a drop wire, an eye in the harness and a dent in the reed. Drawing-in does not generally occur at the loom, but rather in another area in the mill. Drawing-in machines are available but they are extremely expensive. Thus, unless the mill is very large and produces many short run fabrics of different design, manual drawing-in is more prevalent.
WEAVING AND WEAVING MACHINES

A woven fabric consists of two sets of yarns, namely warp and weft. The yarns that are placed lengthwise or parallel to the selvedges of the fabric are called warp yarns or ends. The yarns that run crosswise are called weft yarns or picks or fillings. The woven fabric is the result of interlacing of warp and weft yarns according to weave design. A weaving machine is also known as loom is used to produce woven fabrics. The basic functions of loom illustrated in fig. The rising and lowering of warp ends are carried out by harness frames that hold the ends by means harness and harness eyes. As the harness frames move up and down an opening tunnel be formed due to separation of ends, called a shedding. Then weft pick is inserted through shed from one end to another by means of shuttle which holds a weft yarn package called a pirn, known as picking. Then a comb like device called the reed, which is attached with sley, pushes the pick towards the cloth already woven, is called beat-up. These three motions are known as primary motions repeat again in order to perform weaving process. Besides the three basic motions, there are other auxiliary motions necessary for weaving continuously in weaving machine. They are take-up, let-off; warp stop, weft stop, warp protector and temple motions. These auxiliary motions helps in order to produce a fault free fabrics and enhance the quality. The various motions on the loom should be set in correct timing and properly to perform their functions to produce good quality of fabric according to market demands.
To summarize, the basic and auxiliary motions and their functions on weaving machines are as follows:
Shedding Picking Beat-up Take up
: To separate warp yarns in to two layers, one layer is raised and

other lowered to provide an insertion path to weft yarn. : To insert a weft yarn across the warp ends through the shed by means a shuttle or other weft carriers.
: To push the weft yarn that has been inserted across the warp
ends, towards fell of the cloth. : To pull the cloth forward after the beat-up of the weft, maintaining the same pick density and spacing 6throught weaving weaving of a cloth and winding the woven cloth on to a take up roller. : To allow the warp sheet to unwind from the warp beam during weaving and also to maintain a uniform constant tension of warp as it weaves down. : To stop the loom when warp yarn breaks or excessively loose.
Let off
Warp stop Weft stop
: To stop the loom when weft yarn breaks or weft runs out of the
pirn (weft package)
DOBBY LOOM
Dobby Shedding is improved mechanism for patterns requiring up to 36 harnesses. In this case the healds are all operated by jacks and levers and occupy less spaces as compared to tappet Shedding-mechanism. The other important advantage is the order of lifting and inserting the heald frames, as per the lifting plan, which is controlled by a pattern chain that gives a good scope for weaving designs repeating a large number of picks and ends. It is very easy to change the pattern chain whenever a new design is required to be woven, however, the number of heald frames and order of drawing the ends remains the same. A simple line diagram shown in fig illustrates the working of modern cam dobby. The fig illustrates the actuating of the knives by cams. The bowls on the knife leavers are kept always in contact with the cams by special springs. The knives are only pushed by the cams and the returning is carried out by springs. According to the pegs in the pattern cylinder the corresponding feeler M gets the motion and it is transmitted through needles N and this motion is further actuate the cams then the corresponding T lever (B) gets the movement. This action further helps to engage the corresponding hook towards baulk lever. This will actuate further as it works as fulcrum. This motion is magnified by the bulk lever action of the Jack and is transmitted to the harness. The connection and disconnection of the hooks is caused by needles and feelers, which contact the pegs in the pattern chain.
Advantages of Modern Cam Dobby Loom:

Very smooth movement of harness, thus protecting harness wires from damage. Reduced warp breakages because of smaller depth of shed. The capacity of harness can be possible upto 28-36
JACQUARD LOOM
Jacquard Shedding can be used suitably for producing beautiful elaborate and intricate ornamental designs in forms and multi colors in which a large number of warp threads are required to be controlled individually. A number of weaves may be used in combination to produce a jacquard design with the desired effects. Jacquard weaving is, however, an expensive form of weaving as it is accompanied with designing, card cutting, lacing. The speed of the loom is lower than other types of looms. The jacquard loom consists of two parts the loom and jacquard device. The loom is bolted to the flooring and jacquard is suspended from the ceiling resting on heavy beams. The two are connected by a series of cords known as harness. Jacquard device is a piece of shedding mechanism for selecting and lifting or lowering a group of warp and in a repeat individually for each shed. It is a negative type of shedding, the lifting of the ends being done by hooks and lowering is done by dead weights, suspended from the harness, and termed as lingoes. Jacquard mechanism device is simply a frame containing a number of wire hooks and needles. The hooks formed at the end of the vertical wire can be allowed to remain over to be pushed away from a lifting giraffe by the presence or absence of holes in paper cards that is pressed against the needles by a perforated cylinder. The pattern cards tied together in a set revolve around the cylinder of the jacquard. When these cards engage the needles that control the harness strings through the mails of which are drawn the warp threads of the cloth, they move up or down the warp threads. These hooks can be raised in any required number or order corresponding to the warp threads to be raised for the passage of the shuttle. Those desired up are revealed on the cloth and those not wanted just at that point are suppressed and concealed in back of the fabric. The shuttle flying across binds the weft yarn with the wrap threads and completes the weaving.
HIGH SPEED JACQUARD

High-speed jacquards are suited for use in high-speed shuttle less weaving machines and are recommended also for double width weaving. The knife frames are actuated by bilateral baulk levers in combination with a connecting arm with cams and large surface 49 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
heavy-duty ball bearings. All other pivots also have ball or needle bearings. The knife frames are guided by low friction sliders.
Outstanding features of computer Jacquard weaving machines are:
control
Jacquard/Electronic
1. Keyboard for selecting and editing different functions and programs. 2. Screen for displaying all stored data plus a facility for displaying selected enlarged areas of the pattern. 3. Hard disc for storing program data specific to machine and number of picks with a maximum of 2,30,000 picks with 1344 hooks or 1,15,000 picks with 2688 hooks on Staubli Cx860 jacquard machine. 4. Floppy disc for loading hard disc. Each floppy can hold up to 136 different patterns within the maximum possible number of picks of 8722 with 1344 hook configuration. 5. It is also possible to connect the jacquard to a network system
Sizes and Figuring Capacities of Jacquards

Jacquards are usually built in standard sizes. It is necessary to decide the pattern and type of cloth to be woven, before ordering a jacquard. There are three main pitches: coarse, standard and fine. The size and the figuring capacity of a jacquard are also standardized to a certain extent. Table indicates the size and the figuring capacity of different jacquards.
SIZE AND FIGURING CAPACITY OF JACQUARD

Size of the Machine 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 900 1000 1200 Hooks in a short row 4 8 8 8 10 12 12 12 10 12 Hooks in a long row 26 26 38 51 or 52 51 51 or 52 70 72 100 104 Total hooks 104 208 304 408 or 416 510 612 or 624 840 924 1000 1248
Usually one row of hooks is intended to be used in operating the selvedge threads of the cloth. 300, 400 and 600 are the most common sizes used. Large machines are obtained by placing two smaller machines. 50 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
DROP BOX OR MULTIPLE BOX LOOMS

Multiple box motions are used to insert yarns of different color, counts, fibres or twists across in weft wise of the fabric. In conventional looms, for each variety weft one shuttle is required and there must be an empty box on the opposite side to receive the shuttle. A multiple box loom may have two, four and six boxes one side and one box on the opposite side normally referred as 2x1, 4x1, and 6x1 box looms respectively. These looms for inserting colored weft or different types of weft as per weft pattern. It is possible to have several shuttle boxes on each side of the loom and such looms are denoted as 4x4, 2x2 and 4x2 looms. They are some times used to permit the use of more colors and odd numbers of picks from each color, they are known as pick-at-will looms. The maximum number of colors used is equal to number of boxes of the loom minus one. The most common mechanism used in 4x1 box motion. This mechanism uses two levers to produce a compound movement at the box rod. This movement depends on which lever is moving and about which fulcrum the levers are moving. Lever 2 (fig) moves about the fixed fulcrum f2 to move, fulcrum f1 on lever 1. The levers are usually moved by means of cams, which are gear driven from the looms crankshaft. When movement is required, clutches are engaged to cause the appropriate cam (or cams) to rotate sufficiently to cause the lever system to take up one of the configuration shown in fig. According to the demands of the pattern.
SHUTTLESS WEAVING MACHINES

In conventional weaving to move shuttle weighting around half a kg through the shed, the relatively massive shuttle must be accelerated and decelerated.This naturally takes time and energy and cause noise and vibration. The wear life of loom parts are also limited due to the heavy impact and shock that they have to withstand. This affects the maximum running speed of the loom and it can also affect the fabric quality. Smaller weft packages require frequent replenishment, which increase the workload of weaver. Further more pick and pick, multicoloured weft insertion involves considerable mechanical problems. In nutshell, the drawbacks of the shuttle looms are Small weft package size, requiring frequent replenishment. Higher consumption of spare parts due high rate of wear and tear. Limited scope for increase in speed and performance. Limited control over the quality of the fabric produced. Complicated mechanism on multicolored loom Space and worker required for weft pirn winding. In view of the drawbacks in shuttle loom, shuttle less loom technology has proceeded in two general directions in its attempt to replace the shuttle. In the first, as found in projectile and rapier looms, another solid carrier replaces the shuttle. In the second 51 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
direction, fluid jet looms in which a high-pressure jet of air or water is used to carry the weft through the shed. The different systems of weft insertions have been developed to cater to the specific fields of applications. Air jet and water jet looms can be used for medium range mass production requirement, the rapier for its versatility in weaving fashion materials of different constructions like suiting, upholstery etc. and the projectile looms for apparel fabrics, special varieties like denim and industrial fabrics. The replacement of shuttle by other methods of weft insertion does not bring any fundamental change in the in the sequence of weaving operations, that is shedding, picking and beat up except the method of weft insertion is changed. Positive shedding mechanism is used to supplement the high speeds and in certain cases, beating-up mechanism is also modified. Other mechanisms such as take-up, let-off, warp stop etc. do not differ in principle from those in shuttle looms, although they are more precise in design.
PROJECTILE WEAVING MACHINE

Projectile weaving machine differ from a conventional automatic loom mainly in two aspects: The method of weft insertion in to the warp shed The method of moving the reed and the projectile track
Other motions like shedding, take-up and let-off are more or less, of the same principle.
The working and main features are as follows

The gripper projectile made of fine steel, 90mm long 14mm wide and 6mm thickness (3.5in x 0.55 in x 0.14in) weights 40g (1.33oz). It carries the weft thread into the warp shed. The weft is drawn directly from a large, stationery crops wound package. There is no weft winding. The gripper projectile is picked across the warp shed at very high speed. the picking energy being derived from the energy stored in a metal torsion bar which is twisted at predetermined amount and released to give the projectile a high rate of acceleration. Picking always takes place from one side, but several projectiles are employed and all of them return to the picking side by a conveyor chain underneath the warp shed. During its flight through the shed the projectile runs in a rake like steel guides, so that the warp threads are touched neither by the projectile nor weft thread.
Every pick is cut off at the picking side near the selvedge after weft insertion, leaving a length about 15mm from the edge. Similar length of weft also projects from the selvedge on the receiving side. The ends of weft thread projecting on both sides of the cloth are tucked into the next shed by means of a special tucking device and woven in with next pick, thus providing firm selvedges. The reed is not reciprocated as in a shuttle loom, but rocked about its axis by a pair of cams. The reed and projectile guides are stationary during pick insertion. In case of weft breakage, the take-up beam and heald frames can be driven in reverse by a pick finding mechanism.
Advantages of Projectile Weaving

It is possible to achieve weaving performances with breakage rates per square meter of cloth 50% of the number of breaks that would occur on a conventional loom. Two or three cloths can be woven simultaneously Weft insertion rate up to 900 to 1500 m/min. is possible depending upon the width of the weaving machine The color changing mechanism is less complicated. There is facility of inserting two picks in the same shed without the use of dobby. The lower warp breakage rate in a Projectile Weaving Machine may be due to Smaller warp shed
RAPIER LOOM
Insertion of weft by rapier is a mechanically modern and refined version of fabric production. In present version the weft is inserted by the gripper heads are attached to rapiers, which are flexible tapes or rigid rods. The rapiers are made of coated steel or reinforced high performance carbon fibre. The weft is supplied from magazine cones weighing 3-4kg placed at the right hand side of the machine. Weft is inserted by two flexible rapiers and the weft is laid in two pick weft insertion cycle, with a hairpin shaped loop to form a smooth and uniform conventional selvedge at the right hand side of the cloth and an unconventional leno selvedge at the left hand side. 53 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
The cycle of operations are as follows

As shown in the figure 18.6a, The rapiers A (called the giver) and B (called the taker) are about to enter the shed on the first pick of the insertion cycle. The weft is correctly positioned for reception by the weft positioner E and weft depressor F. The end of weft is firmly held by the weft gripper G at the entrance of the shed. This requires that the weft be transferred from one to the other in the middle of the warp shed during the weft insertion operation. One rapier (called the giver) takes the weft yarn from supply package and carries it to the center of the shed; concurrently, the other rapier (called the taker) also travels to the center and the two meets at center. At this time the taker collects the yarn whereupon both the rapiers are withdrawn, the giver returning empty and the taker completing the motion of the length of the weft yarn.
Advantages of Rapier Loom

Weft insertion rate up to 600 to 1100 m/min. is possible depending upon the width of the weaving machine. It works speeds up to 200-300 ppm. The color changing mechanism is less complicated. There is facility of inserting two picks in the same shed without the use of dobby.
AIR JET LOOM

In an air jet loom, high-pressure air carries the weft yarn through the shed. The major drawback to this type of loom is the air pressure diffuses quite rapidly so the width of fabric is limited. Modern air jet loom use air guides or air guides with auxiliary jets to extend the distance that the yarn can be carried.
The working principle and features of air jet loom are as follows
The weft yarn is positively drawn out from a cheese/cone by measuring drum, which continuously rotates three times for every cycle of weft insertion. Weft yarn A is measured by a measuring drums B equivalent to the width of cloth. Straightener also known as tensioner C loosens the weft yarn prior to weft insertion. The nozzle D spouts the weft yarn by high-speed compressed turbulence air. 54 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
The figure shows the weft yarn spouted the longest distance, about 20cm longer than width of the cloth. The air jet must be kept spouting from the nozzle up to this movement. Suction tube H that is placed on the offside of the loom guides the inserted weft and inhales the weft end, which is cut by cutter. At the time of beating motion, the cutters E on both sides cut the weft yarn so that its ends project about 6mm beyond the edge of cloth. Leno selvedge is formed at both ends. Advantages of Air-Jet Looms Weft insertion rate up to 1300m/min. is possible depending upon the width of the weaving machine. The color changing mechanism is less complicate. It works speeds up to 350-500 ppm.
WATER JET LOOM

Differences between Air jet and Water jet looms
Water jet looms are similar in many ways to air-jet looms but they differ in construction, operating conditions and performance. Warp and weft yarns must be water insensitive i.e. hydrophobic in nature. Thermoplastic yarns e.g. nylon; polyester, polypropylene, glass, and acetate etc. are used. When warps are sized, it must be with water incentive sizes like acrylic ester size. All the machine parts that get wet must be resistant to corrosion. The basic machine is built in mild steel with a protective waterproof spray paint. The heald frames are of aluminum; the wire healds and reed are of stainless steel. The nuts and bolts, which come in contact with water, are of either stainless steel or brass and the guide rolls are of hard chrome dull finish. The machine uses rubber emery and rubber temple rings. Although no compressor is required as with air jet weaving machines, each water jet loom is provided with its own miniature pump to feed water under pressure to the nozzle. To get the best results it is important that the water used does not scale, rust or erode the high precision components of the machine.
Weft supply system

Weft supply system of a water jet loom is shown in Fig. The yarn passes from the supply package over a guide and through a tensioning device to the measuring drum, from there it passes to the picking nozzle. The range of jet and width of loom depends on the water pressure and diameter of the jet.
Merits and Demerits

Compared to the other high speed shuttle less looms, the water jet loom is the least flexible as the fabric woven must be hydrophobic and the range of fabrics is limited to medium weight fabrics although light fabrics can be woven but with a greater difficulty. Maximum width of the machine is 230cm. The kind of weft that can be used depends upon the nozzle, pump and feeler selection unit. Thus leaving no flexibility in the everchanging market, nevertheless water jet looms are the best machines to produce 100% filament fabrics on a mass scale. Another problem is the yarn waste generated on these machines due to the basic machine design. Hydraulic method of weft insertion has by far there lowest energy requirements and least noisy. It is possible to weave at up to 750-1000 ppm. Weft insertion rate up to 1500-2000 m/min is possible depending upon the width of the weaving machine
WOVEN FABRICS
The formation of woven fabric is made by interlacement of yarns at right angles to each other. The central portion of the woven fabric is called the body and the edges of right and left sides are called the selvedges. The selvedges are usually differ from the body of the fabric in both yarn and fabric formation. Interlacing yarns at right angles to each other makes the basic weaves. The longitudinal or lengthwise yarns are known as warp. The individual warp yarns are called ends. The widthwise yarns are known as weft or filling. The individual yarns are called picks. The closeness or compactness of fabric is determined by yarn count and construction (yarns per unit area). Fabrics with finer yarn count are denser than those with a coarser yarn count. Finer yarn count and balanced construction generally yields better performance.
SPECIFICATION OF WOVEN FABRICS

The specification of fabrics is indicated by construction, which is ends per inch (EPI) X picks per inch (PPI), yarn count (Nw x Nwf), the fabric width and the weight (gsm) in terms of grams per square meter. This is written in the following form; 56 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
Width, EPI X PPI, Nw x Nwf, GSM

Width is measured in inches or cms EPI Ends per inch PPI Picks per inch Nw Warp yarn count Nwf Weft yarn count GSM Fabric weight expressed in grams per square meter
PLAIN WEAVE
Easy to produce. Wherever a reasonably comfort and durability plain weave fabrics are ideally suitable. Offers simple and plain background. Gives good background for surface ornamentation like embroidery and printing techniques.
BASKET AND RIB WEAVE

Provide an interesting patterned effect. By proper choice of colored warp and weft yarns, basket weave can be used to produce patterns that provide a more sprightly appear able. The more open structure of the basket weave increases moisture permeability. Simple structure of basket and ribs, which commonly used for shirting fabric. It will have adequate moisture permeability. This helps to keep the wearer cool in hot weather. Since the yarns are free to move, they can more readily absorb the stresses caused by their crushing and bending .For this reason the basket weave is more wrinkle resistant than plain weave. Further more, because the yarns are held less tightly in the simple basket and rib weaves, they have greater mobility this allows the garment to stretch more as the wearer move about. Larger floats in basket and rib weave fabrics are subjected to snagging, (To rubbing against surface). As a general rule, the larger the floats, results less durable. 2/2 and 2/1 weft ribs are known as oxford weaves, which is a popular shirting fabric, are produced by the weft yarns are made twice the diameter of the warp yarns. Thus when the fabric woven, the rib pattern is suppressed and the fabric has the overall appearance of a plain Weave. However, because the yarns are not held as tightly as in the plain weave, the fabric is more wrinkle resistance and more comfortable. Introducing coarser warp or weft yarns at regular across the fabric can produce ribbed fabrics. Ribs can enhance the body by stiffening the cloth and giving it the feel of a heavier fabric.
TWILL WEAVE
Twill weaves patterns produces diagonal lines in the fabric structure. Producing twill weave structures requires minimum three harnesses in loom. Twills may have the diagonal lines running from the lower left to upper right (right hand twill), or the lower 57 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
right to the upper left (left-hand twills). There is no rule that determines which way the diagonal should run; the properties of the fabric are the same in either case. The angle of diagonal line is determined by the positioning of the floats. If the diagonal line runs less than 45 degree of angle, it is known as reclined twill. If the diagonal line runs exactly 45 degree of angle, it is known as regular twills. In case of steep twills, the diagonal line runs more than 45 degree of angle. The angle of the diagonal line is often good indication of quality of the fabric. Since warp yarns are usually stronger and more abrasion resistance than the weft yarns, steep twill can be more durable than regular or inclines twills. However, the performance of a twill fabric also depends upon the pattern. In warp faced, there is more warp yarns and layer warps a float than weft yarns on the face side of the fabric. In weft faced twills more weft yarns and longer floats than warp appear on the surface. Where there are equal numbers of ends and picks and equal length of floats in warp and weft direction on the surface, the fabric known as balanced or even twill. This produces reversible fabric.
PERFORMANCE OF TWILL WEAVES

The interaction between structure and yarn count, patterns and angle allow many more designs to be created in twill weaves. Twill weaves usually have low permeability of water and moisture or air because of the warp and weft yarns produce for a compact structure. At the same time, the wind resistance of the fabric is increased. These properties make the twill weave construction very essential for outerwear. Such as outerwear and raincoats. The feature of twill weave construction is the improved pliability and wrinkle resistance as compared to the plain weave. However, wrinkle resistance is not as great as in the rib or basket weaves without decreasing the durability. The compactness of warp faced twill structure makes good resistance to soiling. While removal of soil is equivalent to the plain weave. Warp faced twills are more durable than the plain weave, provided that the floats are not too long .For example, a 2/1 or 3/2 regular twill weave structure provides greater strength and abrasion resistance than rib, basket or plain weave. The 3/2 60 degree steep twill is even more durable. There are two factors that contribute durability performance of twill weave fabrics. 1. The stronger warp yarns predominate on the face of the cloth. 2. The yarns are not held in tightly in twill weave structure as in the plain weave .The stress and strains are distributed over more yarns .The length of the weft floats is reduced in the steep twill as compared to the regular twill. This provides greater abrasion resistance. 3. If the fabric is made of balanced twill, more of the weft yarns are exposed on the face of the fabric and abrasion resistance is decreased. If reclining twill is used, the abrasion resistance is decreased further more. 4. The durability performance of properly designed twill weave structure is higher than a plain weave of the same yarn count, construction and weight because of the 58 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
number of bindings in the fabric. The bindings are the points where the warp and weft yarns are interlaced. 5. Twills are generally used in heavier fabrics in whom durability is the most important requirement. They are generally used in suits, bottom weights, trouser, slacks, windbreakers and raincoats and work wears.
SATIN WEAVE
The outstanding features of stain weave fabrics are lustrous, sleek appearance, luxurious hand and smooth to feel, and full-bodied drape. Proper selection of yarns, yarn count and weave structure will contribute outstanding aesthetic qualities of fabric without affecting in durability and comfort. Finer counts and short floats yield a compact fabric that will feel warm in winter. Coarser counts, balanced construction and long float in weave structure increases the air permeability for medium weight wear. Satin fabrics are widely used as linings for coats and jackets, because they make it easy to slip on garment during wear. Satins are also formed in draperies and furniture, to which they lend appearance formability. The soil resistances of satin weave fabrics are lesser than plain or twill weaves. Large numbers of yarns are predominated on the fabrics that invite the penetration of dirt particles. The soil resistance of weft satin or sateens are lesser than satins. The tensile strength and abrasion resistances of satin fabrics are lesser than plains and twill weave; this is mainly due to larger floats in the weave structure. However, the compact structure (more yarns per inch) tends to compensate the durability performance. Snagging is the common problem of stain weaves fabrics; this owing to long surface floats in the satin pattern. In warp faced satins weaves, in warp direction will have more abrasion resistance than weft direction. Sateen and weft satins are less durable than warp satins. Because the floats are crosswise rather than warp wise. The sateens are made from spun yarns; these yarns have lower resistance to tearing.
DOBBY WEAVES
Simple geometric designs or figurings may be produced on a standard loom by the attachment of dobby mechanism. This device increases the number of harnesses that may be incorporated in the weaving of a fabric. The harness capacity of dobby looms varies from 6-40 depending upon complicity of the dobby mechanism. The extra 59 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
harness allows the weaver to reproduce a small surface figurings or multi colored check or plaid.
JACQUARD WOVENS
Jacquard Shedding can be used suitably for producing beautiful elaborate and intricate ornamental designs in forms and multi colors in which a large number of warp threads are required to be controlled individually. A number of weaves may be used in combination to produce a jacquard design with the desired effects. Jacquard weaving is, however, an expensive form of weaving as it is accompanied with designing, card cutting, lacing. The speed of the loom is lower than other types of looms.
VELVET AND VELVETEENS

VELVET: - Velvet is a fabric woven from filament yarns, in which the pile is formed by the addition of extra warp yarns. VELVETTEN: - Velveteen is a fabric, usually woven from spun yarns, in which the pile is formed by the addition of extra weft yarns. The ground cloth for either fabric may be woven with a plain or twill weave .the pile configuration may be produced with a v or w interlacing. The light and dark shading of the surface is produced by the difference in light reflected from ends and sides of the fabric. The light that strikes the ends of the fabric is scattered and absorbed, while the light that strikes the sides of the fibers are reflected to the viewers eye. Thus, areas in which the pile is standing up appear darker than those in which the pile is lying down do. The extra yarns used to produce the pile ad weight, stiffen the fabric, and give a fuller body and more pleasing drape characteristics. The fibre ends from the pile yarn produce mild, pleasurable, prickling sensation. The multitude of fibres that form the pile trap a large amount of air, which acts as insulator to give a cloth its warmth. Soil resistance or standing of velvet and velveteen fabrics is poor than flat woven fabrics. This is mainly due to the pile yarns have large exposed area to contact the soil. Dry cleaning is preferred to laundering because excessive agitation in the laundering process may destruct the pile yarns. They must be ironed carefully with low pressure and temperature setting. The excessive pressure and temperature may crush the pile structure and produce a permanent shine on the surface. It is necessary to brush velvets and velveteens, regularly to preserve their aesthetic properties.
Durability performances of velvet and velveteen fabrics are dependent on the construction of the ground cloth, and the interlacing of the pile. Filament yarns, such as silk or polyester provide greater durability than spun yarns. A compact, tightly woven ground cloth holds the pile yarn more firmly. Generally, other factors being equal, a twill construction is more durable than plain weave. W interlacing, because it holds the pile yarns under three weft yarns instead only one, yields more durability. To produce velveteen costs less than velvet because it is easier to insert extra weft yarns than to insert extra weft yarns. Also, spun yarns are usually less expensive than filament yarns. Velvet and velveteen fabrics provide a warm, luxurious hand for such end uses as full length gowns and jackets for formal wear. They are also popular for home furnishings, particularly in drapery and upholstery fabric. In addition, because of their durability, velvets are recommended for higher - quality applications.
CORDUROY
Corduroy is a corded weft pile fabric it is produced by extra weft yarns, which float over one or more warp yarns. This fabric differs from velveteen is that the pile yarns are aligned so as to give a warp wise corded stripe on the surface. Corduroy may be produced with v or w interlacing. The ground cloth may be of twill or plain weave construction .The raised portions of the pile are called wale. Varying the length of the floats when the pile yarns are inserting may change the spacing between them. Corduroy is expected to be heavier fabric than velvet and velveteen .it is usually made with coarser yarns. This yields a fabric that has a stiffer drape and rougher hand than velveteen corduroy is easily laundered and may be ironed.
Types of corduroy
Name Feather wale Pin wale Wales / Inch Ozs/Sq.Yd . 18 19 5 14 16 7 Characteristics / Uses Shallow Pile, Flexible Tops / Bottoms Shallow Pile, Flexible Tops & Bottoms Heavier & Less Flexible Innerwear & Bottoms, Upholstery Heavier & Less Flexible, Most Durable Coats, Upholstery
Mid wale Wide wale
11 3-9
10 12
TERRY FABRICS
Terry fabric is a weft pile fabric. It is manufactured with extra highly twisted warp yarns that are held slack during part of the weaving process. Terry cloth is used for toweling and beachwear. The pile traps air and maintain body temperature. Since purpose is to keep the body dry, terry cloth is made of fibers, such as cotton, that absorbs moisture readily. The durability of the terry cloth is dependent upon the yarn count of the ground cloth. The twist in the pile yarns, and the density of the pile. A thick, closely spaced pile woven into a tightly constructed ground cloth gives the longest wear. Terrycloth is more susceptible to snagging and pulling than the velvets and corduroy because of the loops of the pile remains uncut.
SEERSUCKER
In weaving two warp beams are used to produce this fabric. The yarns on one beam are held at regular tension and those on the other beam are held at slack tension. The yarns are wound onto the two warp beams in-groups of 10 to 16 for a narrow stripe. As the reed beats the weft yarn into place, the slack yarns crinkle or buckle to form a puckered stripe adds the regular tensioned yarns form the flat stripe. The stripes are always in the warp direction. It is a low profit, high cost item because of its slow weaving speed. Seersuckers are made in plain colors, stripes, plaids and prints. Seersucker is used in summer suiting. Dresses, curtains and sportswear.
PIQUE WEAVES
Pique weave produces a fabric with ridges, called Wales or cords, that are held up by floats on the back. Cords or Wales usually run in the lengthwise direction. Stuffer yarns 62 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
are laid under the ridges in better quality pique fabrics to emphasize the roundness, an their presence or absence is one way of determining quality. The stuffer yarns are not interlaced with the surface yarns of the fabric and may be easily removed when analyzing a swatch of fabric. Pique fabrics are woven on either dobby or jacquard loom depending on the complexity of the design. Pique fabrics are more resistant to wrinkling and have more body than flat fabrics. Better quality pique fabrics are made with long staple combed yarns and have at least one stuffer yarn. Bedford cord is a heavy fabric with wide warp cords used for bedspreads, upholstery, window treatments, slacks, and uniforms. Its spun warp yarns are coarser than the weft yarns.
CREPE WEAVES
Crepe is a class of weaves that present a distinct weave effect but give the cloth the appearance of being sprinkled with small pots or seeds. The appearance resembles crepe made from high twist yarns. Fabrics made on a loom with a dobby attachment. Some are variation of satin weave, with weft yarns forming the irregular floats. Some are even-sided and some have a decided warp effect. Sand crepe is a common medium to heavy weight crepe weaves fabric of either spun or filament yarns. It has a repeat pattern of 16 warp yarns and 16 wefts yarns and requires 16 harnesses. No float is greater than two yarns in length. Moss crepe is a combination of high twist crepe yarns and crepe weave. The yarns are plied yarns with one ply made of high twist single yarn. Moss crepe is used in dress and blouses.
Properties and performance of knitted fabrics
PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF KNITTED FABRICS

Knit Fabric Structure
Knit fabric structures are formed through the process of interlocking loops or forming looms with one or more yarns in preceding and succeeding rows. Knit fabrics are produced by hand or on a variety of knitting machines with one or more needles of different types.
Variations of knit fabrics may be achieved by manipulating any one or more of the following
Fiber Content Natural, Man-made cellulosic and synthetic, blend or combination. Fiber length Filament or Staple Count of Yarn finer or courser core spun Yarn type spun, filament, plied, twisted, texturised, and novelty Type and capacity of knitting machine flat or circular knitting machine Special attachments in knitting machine like jacquard and plaiter Type and quality of needles Size, thickness and length of needles Operative system of needles selectively activate and deactivate Number and spacing of needle sets Stitch length or loop length Formation and pattern of stitches
The variation of the above factors will affect surface appearance, textural configuration, properties and characteristics, weight, feel or hand and drapablity behaviour of knitted fabrics.
Knit fabrics are classified and named with regard to the

Structure of fabric Method or type of production or construction Type of machine used for its construction Number of guide bars on a machine
Differences between Woven and Knitted fabrics Knitted fabric

High extensibility with complete recovery High crease /wrinkle resistant Weft knitted fabrics is much thicker Because of low twisted yarns Warp and weft knits are soft drape Weft knits feel soft hand and Warp knits Similar to woven fabrics More air permeable than woven fabrics of the similar weight Less stronger Poor dimensional stability
Woven fabric
more rigid and stiffer low crease /wrinkle resistant less thickness due to high twist yarns woven fabrics of same weight has fuller drape woven feel stiff hand less air permeable more stronger good dimensional stability much
Parts of Knit Fabric Structure

Stitches
The basic element of knit fabric structure. Stitches are produced by a knitted loop pulled through a previously formed loop.
Wale
The vertical row of loops whereby one loop is formed under another in the lengthwise direction. The continuous succession of interlocking loops in made by the same needle.
Course
The horizontal row of loops whereby one loop is formed next to the other in the filling or crosswise direction. Each loop is made by a different needle.
Construction
The number of Wales per inch and courses per inch of a knitted fabric. Also referred to as course count or wale count.
Gauge
Gauge determines the fineness or density of the fabric. It is used to evaluate the closeness and compactness of stitches in a knit fabric. Gauge relates to the number of needles to the inch in a knitting machine, which accounts for the number of stitches or loops produced per square inch of fabric. For example:
Full fashion knits Numbers of needles per 1 Raschel knits Number if needles per 2 Tricot knits Number of needles per 1
Jersey Knits
The simplest of the knit cloths is the jersey or plain knit. In this pattern all the stitches are brought toward the face of the fabric that is, all the stitches are knit stitches. The same fabric is formed if all the stitches are purl stitches. Lengthwise columns of Vs characterize the face of this cloth. The back of the cloth appears as rows of short dashes or half-circles. The jersey is the basic pattern for knit goods. It has relatively good stretch in both lengthwise (wale wise) and widthwise (course wise) directions; recovers most of the stretch so that it is not easily pulled out of shape; and can be sewn without great difficulty. In addition, it is easy to make on relatively inexpensive machinery. The disadvantage of jersey include a tendency to unravel when snagged or pulled, little run resistance when the yarns are torn or cut, a propensity to shrink when laundered, and a tendency to curl when patterns are cut out. Jersey knits are used for sweaters, underwear, hosiery, dresses, and sport shirts. They can also be made into pile fabrics for other end uses.
Purl Knits
Alternating courses of knit and purl stitches makes purl-knit cloth, which has a rather nondescript appearance. Both its face and back are composed of short dashes or halfcircles lying in the direction of the courses Purl knits provide fabrics of the same bulk as jersey knits. However, wind resistance can be less than in jerseys of the same weight. Since wind can penetrate the fabric more easily, its use in outerwear is limited. Furthermore, this cloth provides fair stretch recovery in the wale wise direction, but can be stretched out of shape in the course wise direction. This makes it best suited to stoles, scarfs, quilts, and other items that are not subject to crosswise stretching; its utility for many garments is limited because of its poor shape retention.
Rib Knits
Alternating Wales of knit and purl stitches makes rib knits. The rib stitch appears as a series of hills and valleys running lengthwise across the surface of the cloth. In the simplest construction the Wales alternate as knit-purl. However, more complex combinations may be formed, as in a 2/1 or a 1/2/3 rib. Rib knits with an even repeat, such as 1/1 or 2/2, are reversible. Rib-knit cloth provides greater bulk than jersey of the same weight. Its opacity, therefore, limits its usefulness in hosiery. However, this pattern provides excellent elasticity in the 66 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
course wise direction. For this reason, the rib is used for cuffs and collars to provide a body-fitting closure for neatness and protection against the wind. With the recent acceptance of form-fitting garments, rib knits have become popular in sweaters and sport shirts. Rib knits do not curl as jersey knits do, so cutting and sewing is not as difficult. However, because of the ease with which the cloth stretches, care must be taken in construction. Since one of the desirable properties of rib-knit garments is the close fit they provide, some shrinkage is tolerable. Because of this, such garments may be laundered. This easy-care feature has helped enhance the popularity of rib-knit fabrics.
Interlock Knits
By using a knitting machine equipped with two sets of needles, it is possible to make a fabric that resembles a jersey knit on the both front and back. Alternating knit and purl stitches in both the wale wise and course wise directions produces the interlock knit, shown in Fig.13.6. Figure. 13.7 show how the stitches are arranged. Note that each course alternately knits to the front and then to the back of the fabric. The knit cloth is essentially two rib knits knitted together.
Double Jersey or Rib Double Knit

This fabric has an appearance similar to jersey on one face and to a rib knit on the other. The stitch structure is shown in Fig. 13.8. In this weft knit, one course is composed of alternating knit and purl stitches while the next course is made up of alternating knit and misses stitches. The cloth is held together as the knit stitches of one course interloop with the miss stitches of the next. Note that whereas the interlock is reversible, the double jersey has two different faces.
DOUBLE-AND SINGLE-KNIT FABRICS COMPARISION APPEARANCE

The properties of double-knit fabrics may be illustrated by a discussion of the interlock knit. This fabric has the same appearance as the jersey knit, and its esthetic properties are essentially the same; interlock knits, however, are heavier and more full-bodied than jerseys of the same gauge, made from the same yarns, because they are actually two kind cloths combined into one fabric.
COMFORT
Interlock knits can provide good resistance to penetration by wind while allowing transfer of moisture from the body to the outside air. The former property helps to maintain warmth and the latter provides a comfortably dry feel. These two important properties are achieved by the placing of stitches so that the other layer blocks penetration through one layer of loops. Thus, wind is prevented from directly penetrating the fabric. Moisture transmission, however, is a slower process and the water vapor can follow a zigzag pattern through the fabric to the outside. In addition, interlock knits do not stretch as readily as single knits. The reduced stretch provides 67 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
greater dimensional stability and shape retention, but at the cost of decreased ease of motion.
MAINTENANCE
The maintenance properties of double knits are essentially those of jersey knits, except that interlocks do not require as much care in laundering.
DURABILITY
As expected, double knits has higher strength than single knits, and better dimensional stability. Abrasion resistance is the same as in single knits. Resistance to running and raveling is greater in double knits. Finally, interlock knits are more easily made into garments, since they cut easily and do not curl as readily as jerseys. Double jerseys provide much the same properties as interlocks. However, since either side of the fabric may be used as the face, double jerseys provide an extra degree of esthetic freedom and a greater variety of patterns.
Uses
Double-knit fabrics are used for shirts, sleepwear, slacks and pants, and jackets. The mens wear market has been greatly affected by the introduction of double knits for mens suits. These fabrics, with their greater wrinkle resistance and higher elasticity, have provided consumers with clothing better suited to mobile lifestyle. Knit cloth, however, is not readily suited to all aspects of men swear. It is difficult to maintain a proper crease and a tailored look with knit fabrics. In addition, woven cloth is more easily hand-sewn than knit cloth. These two factors have retarded the acceptance of knits in higher-priced mens suits, in which a great amount of hand sewing and the requirements of an impeccably railroad appearance still give woven cloth the edge.
THE EFFECT OF GAUGE

The properties of knit fabric are affected by the kind and number of yarns used in its preparation. The knitting gauge determines the durability, esthetics, and comfort of a garment and the size of the yarns used. For example, a cloth knit of heavy yarns on a 6 gauge traps a lot of air within the fabric; this makes it warm. The bulk of the yarns provide an opaque fabric. The loose construction of the cloth assures that it will stretch well. These characteristics make the cloth suitable for use in a bulky sweater that will be warm, cover the body well, and provide freedom of movement. However, the sweater will not have good abrasion properties, will be pulled out of shape easily, and will required careful handling in cleaning. Stocking made from heavy yarn on a 6 gauge, however, though they would be warm, would not satisfy the consumers esthetic requirements. Hosiery is intended to flatter the wearer. For this end use, a much higher gauge, say 60, with finer yarns, would be used. This combination provides a sheer fabric with a lustrous appearance and a smooth hand. It will also be more elastic and hug the leg. Unfortunately, the fine yarn do no withstand stress or abrasion as well as heavy yarns, so although the fabric is more compact, its strength and abrasion resistance are low. Between these extremes might lay a fabric to be used in underwear. It would be made of a medium gauge, say 30, from medium-size yarns. This cloth would not have the warmth of the sweater, but would be warmer than the hosiery. It would have high abrasion resistance and tear strength because of its compact construction. Freedom of motion would be retained because of the nature of the pattern. The combination of compact structure and medium-size yarns would make the durability better than in either of the other cloths. Laundering of the garment could be accomplished with less care. For these examples we can see that proper choice of gauge and yarn size in knit cloth can satisfy a wise range of end-use requirements. In general, higher gauge means more compact cloth; thicker yarns yield a bulkier cloth.
WARP KNITS
In warp knitting, many yarns running in the wale wise direction are looped to form a material in which the courses are interlocked in a zigzag pattern instead o straight across as in weft knits. A comparison of the warp knit shown in Fig. 13.9 with the simple filling knit shown in Fig. 13.2 makes the difference readily apparent. Warp-knit fabrics are tighter, have less stretch, and are not as bulky as weft knits. Furthermore, warp knitting can produce decorative effects that are beyond the capabilities of filling-knit methods. Warpknit fabrics have better dimensional stability, greater resistance to snagging, raveling, running, and abrasion, as well as higher strength than weft knits. Warp knits are also prized for their soft hand, smoothness, sheerness, and good draping qualities. The warpknit cloths of major importance are TRICOT and RASCHEL.
TRICOT KNITS
Just as filling-knit patterns can be produced from four basic stitches, three basic motions of the knitting needles can produce all tricot cloth. The yarn may be formed into (1) a closed loop, (2) an open loop, or (3) no loop is formed. Fig. 13.10 shows the formation of open and closed loops. In the simplest the tricot construction, a single layer of cloth characterized by wale wise ribs on the face and course wise ribs on the back is produced. A photograph of a single-warpknit tricot cloth is shown in Fig. 13.9. The loop pattern is illustrated in Fig. 13.11. Singlewarp tricot cloth has good permeability to air and moisture, acceptable elasticity, a soft hand, and good drape. Its dimensional stability and run resistance are also better than those of most weft knits. Tricot knitting lends itself readily to light, sheer constructions. For this reason the cloth is usually made of fine-filament yarns. The spacing of the yarns may be measured by the gauge, as in weft knitting, but is more often measured by the NEEDLE COUNT or CUT. These terms are defined as the number of needles, or stitches, in one inch. The standard tricot machine operates with a cut of 28, the equivalent of 42 gauges.
Properties of Tricot Knits

APPEARANCE:
Tricot-knit fabrics have a very fine wale wise stripe in the face and a course wise stripe on the back. Except under close inspection the pattern is not readily seen, so either the technical face or back of the fabric may be used as the face when the material is being made up into garments. This ability to use either side of the cloth is useful to the manufacturer because it gives some flexibility in printing or other finishing processes such as napping. The drape of tricot-knit fabrics is usually very soft.
COMFORT
Single-warp tricot cloth has good permeability to air and moisture. Wind resistance, as with filling knits, is dependent upon the gauge or cut. The hand is usually soft and smooth, although the fabric may be napped to give a fuzzy texture well suited to sleepwear. Stretch, although less than that of filling knits is greater than that of woven. Elasticity is good.
MAINTENANCE
Tricot knits, because they are usually made from filament yarns, tend to have good soil and stain resistance. Their structure, with the yarns running in the wale wise direction, also improves the soil resistance and ease of soil removal. Wrinkle resistance is excellent, as would be expected from a knit fabric. Dimensional stability is better than that of most weft knits; so that tricot knits may be machine laundered.
Properties and performance of Non-woven fabrics
Non Woven Fabrics

Fabrics that are made directly from fiber, without the intermediate step of yarn preparation. Mechanical entanglement of the fibres by use of Added resins Thermal fusion Formation of chemical complexes Selection of the geometrical arrangements of the fibres in the web. The properties of the fibres used in the web. Properties of any binders that may be used. Bond density (number of fibre-to-fibre bonds per unit area )
The properties of Non woven are controlled by
Fibrous Web Structure

Basic steps Selecting the fibres Laying the fibres to make a web Bonding the web together to make a fabric Dry laid Wet laid Spun bonded Spun laced Melt blown
There are five techniques are involved
Fiber alignment is an important factor in controlling web characteristics. v Fiber orientation describes Degree of parallelization among fibres in the web. Degree of parallelization between the fibres and machine direction. Webs the fibres that are not parallel to each other. Length wise oriented webs have a grain. Strength and drape properties are related to fiber alignment in web. TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM
v Fibre random alignment describes
1. Dry Laid Fibre Webs

Are made by carding or air laying the fiber in either a random or oriented fashion. Fibres web is produced in carding process. Webs can be cross-laid by stacking the carded web so that one layer is oriented lengthwise and the next layer crosswise to give added strength and pliability. Cross laid webs do not have a grain and can be cut more economically. Air laid or random, webs are made by machines that disperse the fibres by air. This web is similar to the cross-laid web but has a more random fibre distribution. Oriented webs have good strength in the direction of orientation, but poor cross sectional strength. Random webs have the fibres oriented in a random fashion, the strength is uniform in all direction.
End uses of Dry laid Fiber Webs

Wipes, Wicks, battery separators, backing for quilted fabrics, interlinings, insulation, filters, base fabric for laminating and crafting.
2. Wet Laid Fiber Webs

Made from a slurry of short fibres and water
The water is extracted and reclaimed, leaving random oriented fibrous web. Advantage: exceptional uniformity
Uses:
Filters, Interlining, Insulation, Roofing Substrate, Adhesive carrier, and Battery separator.
3. Spun bonded webs

Are made immediately after fibres are extruded from spinnerets. The continuous hot filaments are laid down in a random fashion on a fast moving conveyer belt. 73 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore
In their semi melted state, fuse together at their cross points. Further bonded by heat/pressure High tensile and tear strength with low bulk.
End uses
Carpet backing, geotextiles, adhesive carrier, tents traps, wall coverings, Protective apparel, bags, Filters, insulation, roofing substrate.
4. Hydro entangled or Spun lace Webs

Similar to spun bonded webs except that jets of water are forced through the web, shattering the filaments into staple fibres and producing woven like structure. These webs have greater elasticity and flexibility than spun bonded fabrics. Also known as Water needled fabrics.
Water from high-pressure jets on both sides of the fabric entangles the fibres. The degree of entanglement controlled by Number & force of jets Fibre types CAD system maintain the uniform quality.
Uses:
Medical gowns and drapes, battery separators, inter linings, roping substrates, floppy disk liners, mattress pads, table liners, wall coverings, window treatment components. v Sontara is hydro entangled polyester by Dupont. v Confor Max is a micro denier Olefin and hydro entangling to produce a fabric that is impermeable to wind, cold, and liquid water. It is used in winter active sports wear.
5. Melt-blown Fibre Webs

Made by extruding the polymer velocity, Heated air stream that breaks the fibre into short pieces The fibres are collected as a web on a moving conveyer belt And are held together by a combination of fibre interlacing and thermal bonding. through a single-extrusion orifice into high
5. Needle punching
Properly prepared dry-laid web over a needle loom. Needle loom has barbed needles protruding 2 or 3 inches from the base. As the needles stitch up and down through the web, the barbs pull a few fibres through the web, causing them to interlock mechanically with other fibres. Needled fabrics can be made of two-layer web with each layer a different color. By pulling colored fibres from the lower layer to the top surface, geometric designs can be made. If the fibres are pulled above the surface a pile fabric results. Needle-punched fabrics are finished by pressing -> steaming->calendering ->dyeing -> embossing. Solution dyed fibres are often used.
Uses: Blankets, Carpets Chemical Bonded Non Woven

Used with Dry laid or Wet laid webs to bond the fibres together. Acrylic emulsions are usually used. Heat / Pressure are used to bond thermo plastic fibre webs. Eg: Poly propylene (olefin) homo polymer and bicomponent polypropylene core-nylon sheat filaments used by chemical/heatbonded technique is used for industrial fabrics.
Fusible Non Woven

Contribute body and shape to garments as inter facing or inter linking in shirts, blouses, dresses and outerwear. Fibres web with a heat sealable thermo plastic adhesive. It also may be thin, spider web like fabric of thermoplastic filaments. The fusible fabric is applied to the back of a face fabric, the layers are bonded by heat and pressure. the adhesives used are polyethylene, hydrolyzed ethylene vinyl acetate. Plasticized poly vinyl chloride and polyamides. the adhesives may be printed on the substrate in a precisely positived maner to give the desired hand to the end product. Eliminates certain areas of stitching such as zigzag stiches used in coat and suit lapels. When the proper technique and correct selection are combined, increased productivity.
Problem
Adhesive may bleed. Differential shrinkage.
Difficult to predict the change in hand and drape.

Textile Science - III Sem - Final

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Textile Science - III Sem - Final

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bangalore

Textile Fibres and Their Properties

TEXTILE FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Forecasting Trend Development

Psychographics Price - point

Design & Styling

1 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

FABRIC PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES

* Chemical Effects * Environmental Conditions

Care & Maintenance

2 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

COMPOSITION / ORIGIN OF FIBRES

Animal / Protein Fibres

Asbestos Varieties of rock Calcium and Magnesium Silicates

II. Manmade Fibres

1. Polyester 2. Nylon 3. Acrylic 4. Mod Acrylic 5. Spandex 6. Olefin 7. Glass 8. Graphite

3 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE FABRICS

Absorbency is related to many factors Skin Comfort

Static Charges Build up

4 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

Resiliency or Wrinkle Resistance or Crease Resistance

6 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

7 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

Performance properties of textile fibres

Grades of Cotton fibres are based on:

Properties and performance of Cotton fabrics: Aesthetics:

8 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

Apparels: Because of Comfort / Durability / Easy Care Formal and Casual

Furnishings: Because of Versatility, Natural comfort, Ease of Dyeing

9 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

FLAX General Features:

Properties and performance of Linen fabrics:

10 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

Properties and performance of Silk fabrics:

Effect of Environmental Conditions:

Care and Maintenance:

End Uses of Silk:

For apparels, silk offers:

In Home Furnishings, Silk fabrics provide:

12 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

IMPORTANT TYPES OF SILK PRODUCTS

Wild Silk / Tussah, Eri, Muga Silk:

Types of Mulberry Silk:

13 2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM

The quality of wool depends upon

Properties and performance of Wool fabrics:

Hand: Wool fabrics feels warm, springy rough and dry

Effect of Environmental Conditions:

Felting: Interlocking of fibres due to scales when subjected to wet mechanical

Care & Maintenance:

Types of wool products

Properties and performance of Rayon fabrics:

Effect of Environmental Conditions

2005 by TEXTILE DESIGN, NIFT Bangalore

TEXTILE SCIENCE V. SIVALINGAM