A Christian's Guide to Evidence for the Bible: 101 Proofs from History and Archaeology
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About this ebook
- Scripture references
- full-color photos
- a brief discussion of the evidence
- a list of other places in the Bible the person, place, or event is mentioned
- and a list of sources to consult for further information and verification
This fascinating volume is not only a strong apologetic for the historicity of the Bible but is also the perfect resource for the layperson who wants to enhance their personal Bible study and for those teaching Sunday school or leading a group study.
J. Daniel Hays
J. Daniel Hays (PhD, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary) is dean of the Pruet School of Christian Studies and professor of Old Testament at Ouachita Baptist University. He is the author of From Every People and Nation, The Message of the Prophets, The Temple and the Tabernacle, and A Christian’s Guide to Evidence for the Bible: 101 Proofs from History and Archaeology. He has coauthored or coedited Grasping God’s Word; Journey into God’s Word; Preaching God’s Word; The Baker Illustrated Bible Background Commentary; Jeremiah and Lamentations; The Story of Israel: A Biblical Theology; and God’s Relational Presence: The Cohesive Center of Biblical Theology. He teaches adult Sunday School at his local church in Arkadelphia, Arkansas, and also speaks both regionally and internationally.
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A Christian's Guide to Evidence for the Bible - J. Daniel Hays
Daniel Hays is a reliable and careful biblical scholar whose writings I have used and have recommended to others. Here is another fine, accessible work—this time on historical and archaeological evidences for Scripture. This book is a valuable guide for Christians and non-Christians alike who are interested in seeing how solidly the Bible is rooted in history. I look forward to having this book with me the next time I visit Israel!
Paul Copan, Pledger Family Chair of Philosophy and Ethics, Palm Beach Atlantic University, and author of Is God a Moral Monster? Making Sense of the Old Testament God
"For those who already believe, apologetics provides an external witness to an internal reality. The same can be said for A Christian’s Guide to Evidence for the Bible. It is a witness for those who are searching and an affirmation for those who are already convinced. By providing this accessible scholarship, Hays has given a great gift to the church. I have benefited from his books for years, and this work is no exception. Read and be encouraged!"
Dr. Steven Smith, senior pastor, Immanuel Baptist Church, Little Rock, Arkansas
"A Christian’s Guide to Evidence for the Bible is, simply put, a terrific resource! I salute and applaud J. Daniel Hays for putting together this beautifully illustrated volume that, with great thoughtfulness, clarity, and organizational skill, illuminates key literary, historical, and geographical aspects of challenging biblical texts related to 101 people, places, and events. Drawing on his years of teaching, research, and travel, Hays has provided a marvelous gift for students, teachers, and scholars of both the Old and New Testaments. I am delighted to recommend this wonderful work."
David S. Dockery, Distinguished Professor of Theology, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary; president, International Alliance for Christian Education
"Professors and pastors are always looking for resources that provide helpful insights with brevity, clarity, and significance. A Christian’s Guide to Evidence for the Bible does just that! For each of the 101 examples, Hays provides a clear summary, points out its significance in Scripture and history, provides some related resources, and includes clear images. This resource will be a treasure trove for scholars, teachers, and pastors seeking a convenient and accurate consideration of archaeological evidences that offer a ring of certainty for Scripture."
Michael A. Grisanti, PhD, chair of the Old Testament Department, director of TMS Israel Study Trip, and Distinguished Research Professor of Old Testament, The Master’s Seminary
© 2020 by J. Daniel Hays
Published by Baker Books
a division of Baker Publishing Group
PO Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287
www.bakerbooks.com
Ebook edition created 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
ISBN 978-1-4934-2764-2
Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the Christian Standard Bible®, copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Christian Standard Bible® and CSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers.
Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com. The NIV
and New International Version
are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™
Interior design by William Overbeeke.
To Liam and Reed
Contents
Cover
Endorsements
Half Title Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
The Bible, History, and Archaeology
Abbreviations
Examples 1–30: Historical People in the Old Testament
1. Ahab, King of Israel
2. Ahaz, King of Judah
3. Ben-hadad, Son of Hazael, King of Aram (Syria)
4. Cyrus and Darius I, Kings of Persia
5. David, King of Israel—His Dynasty and His Palace
6. Gedaliah (Official under King Zedekiah) and His Father, Pashhur
7. Hazael, King of Aram (Syria)
8. Hezekiah, King of Judah
9. Hilkiah (High Priest in Jerusalem) and His Son Azariah
10. Hoshea, King of Israel
11. Isaiah, Prophet in Jerusalem
12. Jehoash, King of Israel
13. Jehucal (Official under King Zedekiah) and His Father, Shelemiah
14. Jeroboam II, King of Israel
15. Jehu, King of Israel
16. Manasseh, King of Judah
17. Menahem, King of Israel
18. Mesha, King of Moab
19. Nebuchadnezzar II and Evil-merodach, Kings of Babylon
20. Nebusarsechim, Nergal-sharezer, and Nebuzaradan, Officials under the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar
21. Omri, King of Israel
22. Pekah, King of Israel
23. Rezin of Damascus, King of Aram (Syria)
24. Sanballat, Governor of Samaria under the Persians
25. Shaphan and Gemariah, Officials in Jerusalem
26. Tattenai, Governor of Across the River
(Trans-Euphrates)
27. Tiglath-pileser III, Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon, Kings of Assyria
28. Tirhakah, King of Cush and Pharaoh of Egypt
29. Uzziah (Azariah), King of Judah
30. Xerxes and Artaxerxes, Kings of Persia
Examples 31–41: Historical Events in the Old Testament
31. The Assyrian Campaign against the Philistine City of Ashdod
32. The Assyrian Siege and Capture of Lachish
33. The Battle between the Cushites and the Assyrians during the Reign of Hezekiah
34. The Campaign of Shishak, Pharaoh/King of Egypt, into Judah
35. The Defeat of the Egyptians by the Babylonians at Carchemish
36. The Capture and Exile of the Egyptian City of Thebes by the Assyrians
37. Harvesting Cedar Logs from Lebanon
38. Jehoiachin, Exiled King of Judah, Given Rations in Babylon
39. King Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah and His Unsuccessful Siege of Jerusalem
40. The Murder of the Assyrian King Sennacherib by His Sons
41. The Presence of the Israelites in Canaan, the Land West of the Jordan River
Examples 42–51: Historical Places in the Old Testament
42. Azekah, Fortress City of Judah
43. Beth-shan (Beth-shean), City at the Jezreel Valley and Jordan Valley Intersection
44. Damascus, Capital City of Aram (Syria)
45. Dan (Laish), City of Northern Israel
46. Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Ekron, Cities of Philistia
47. Gezer, Fortress City of Israel
48. Hazor, Fortress City in Northern Israel
49. Megiddo, Fortress City Guarding the Jezreel Valley
50. Memphis, Capital City of Egypt
51. Tyre and Sidon, Powerful Coastal Cities of Phoenicia/Canaan
Examples 52–75: Historical People in the New Testament
52. Annas (Ananus) and Caiaphas, Jewish High Priests
53. Aretas IV, King of Nabatea/Petra
54. Bernice, Sister of Herod Agrippa II
55. Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor
56. Caesar Claudius, Roman Emperor
57. Caesar Tiberius, Roman Emperor
58. Candace (Kandake), Queen of the Ethiopians
59. Drusilla, Jewish Wife of Felix and Sister of Herod Agrippa I
60. The Egyptian Who Led a Revolt during the Time of the Roman Governor Felix
61. Erastus, Official in Corinth
62. Felix (Marcus Antonius Felix), Roman Governor (Procurator) of Judea
63. Gallio (Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeus), Proconsul of Achaia
64. Herod the Great
65. Herod Agrippa I, Grandson of Herod the Great
66. Herod Agrippa II, Son of Herod Agrippa I and Great-Grandson of Herod the Great
67. Herod Antipas, Son of Herod the Great and Tetrarch of Galilee
68. Herod Archelaus, Son of Herod the Great and Ruler of Judea
69. Herod Philip, Son of Herod the Great and Tetrarch of Trachonitis
70. Herodias, Wife of Herod Philip and Herod Antipas
71. Jesus Christ
72. Judas the Galilean
73. Pontius Pilate, Roman Governor (Procurator) of Judea
74. Porcius Festus, Roman Governor (Procurator) of Judea
75. Quirinius, Governor of Syria
Examples 76–84: Historical Events and Groups in the New Testament
76. Caesar Claudius Evicts the Jews from Rome
77. Famine during the Reign of Caesar Claudius
78. The Jewish Community at Cyrene, City in North Africa
79. John the Baptist Is Killed by Herod Antipas
80. The Pharisees and Sadducees
81. Pontius Pilate Crucifies Jesus, the Messiah (Christ)
82. The Prohibition against Bringing Gentiles into the Temple
83. Sailing to Rome on Alexandrian Grain Ships
84. Synagogues in the First Century AD
Examples 85–101: Historical Places in the New Testament
85. Caesarea Maritima, City on the Coast of Judea
86. Caesarea Philippi, City at the Headwaters of the Jordan River
87. Capernaum, City by the Sea of Galilee
88. The Cities of the Decapolis
89. Corinth, City in Greece
90. The Forum of Appius and the Three Taverns: Stopping Stations in Italy
93. Jericho, City by the Jordan River
92. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem
93. Laodicea, City in Asia Minor
94. Miletus, Port City in Asia Minor
95. Pergamum, City in Asia Minor
96. Philippi, City in Macedonia
97. Sardis, City in Asia Minor
98. Syracuse, Rhegium, Puteoli: Cities in Sicily and Italy
99. The Temple of the Goddess Artemis at Ephesus
100. The Theater in the City of Ephesus
101. Thessalonica, the City Officials, and the Via Egnatia
Conclusion
Image Credits
About the Author
Back Ads
Back Cover
The Bible, History, and Archaeology
Archaeology and history have always fascinated me, especially when they are related to the Bible. A few years ago I was leading a group of college students on a biblical studies tour across Turkey. As part of the trip, we stopped in Istanbul to visit the Archaeological Museum. The Turks had been in control of Palestine during the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth centuries (prior to World War I), and thus I knew that they had acquired a lot of amazing artifacts discovered in the early days of archaeology in Israel/Palestine. Yet as we roamed around this big museum, we were having trouble finding some of the most important artifacts I was looking for. Finally, I split up the college students into small groups and had them scatter all across the museum, then report back to me on the ground floor.
One group successfully located what we were looking for and led us up to the dusty third floor in a wing with no air-conditioning and where we were the only visitors. There, in a somewhat obscure location, we found one of the stone signs from the outer courtyard of the temple during the time of Jesus warning that gentiles were not allowed beyond that point (see the discussion in example 82, The Prohibition against Bringing Gentiles into the Temple
). This two-thousand-year-old stone sign provides fascinating historical authenticity to the situation described in Acts 21, where the Jews in the temple attack Paul for supposedly bringing gentiles into the forbidden temple area (i.e., past this sign). Yet this famous and extremely significant artifact was sitting largely unnoticed on the infrequently visited third floor of a museum in Istanbul. Wow!
the students exclaimed. More people need to know about this.
At about the same time, over in Jerusalem, the excavation project led by Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar discovered thirty-four different clay seal impressions (made by imprinting a small stone seal into a lump of clay) among ruins that dated to the time of King Hezekiah (715–687/686 BC). Among these seal impressions (called bullae) was one from King Hezekiah himself. Furthermore, another one contained the name Isaiah, probably the same Isaiah as the prophet in the Bible (who was a close associate of Hezekiah). This was an amazing discovery! It verifies the historicity of King Hezekiah and provides strong evidence for the historicity of the prophet Isaiah. When I read the news reports and the discussions in archaeological journals about this discovery, I thought, like my students in the museum in Istanbul, Wow! More people need to know about this.
So that is the goal of this book—to bring together pictures and descriptions of Bible-related artifacts from museums across the world, as well as the latest in archaeological discoveries, and to present everything in a compact format so that more people can know about this. I would love to take you personally to visit the great museums of the world (e.g., London, Paris, Berlin, Jerusalem) and, likewise, to the many biblical sites that have been excavated (e.g., Ephesus, Sardis, Jerusalem, Lachish, Dan) to show you all this fascinating material. But, alas, that is impractical. So I will try to do the next best thing—take you to those museums and biblical sites through this book and share with you 101 examples of historical and archaeological verification for the Bible that they contain. These 101 short chapters will not only help to demonstrate the historicity of Scripture but will also help you in understanding the Bible.
I chose the number 101 because . . . well . . . 101 is a large, impressive number of examples. With only a few debatable exceptions, all 101 verifications I present in this book are historically and archaeologically certain and beyond question. When we add all this evidence together, the cumulative conclusion is that the Bible is historical. At the very least, critics would have to admit that the Bible contains an overwhelming number of people, events, and places that can be verified historically and archaeologically.
As I pulled this material together, the book naturally divided into two main sections: Old Testament and New Testament. Likewise, within each section the material seemed to fall into three major categories: historical people, historical events and groups, and historical places. Within each of these categories, I have simply organized the articles alphabetically.
How then should readers use this book? Readers can use this book in several different ways. Some may want to simply read it straight through from beginning to end, as with a regular book. Others may want to just skim through it, stopping to read those articles they are most interested in. Another option is to use this book as a reference tool to assist in developing Bible studies, Sunday school lessons, or sermons.
The Historical and Archaeological Sources
Throughout this book I divide the evidence into two basic categories, although obviously there is some overlap between them. First, I explore the ancient literary material. This includes documents of all kinds—letters, books, monument inscriptions, dedicatory plaques, and seals. My goal is to present written evidence that comes from the same general time period as the biblical detail we are discussing. Obviously, the further back in history we go, the less written material we will find. Many ancient literary works simply did not survive the thousands of years of decay and destruction. Yet we do still have a wealth of ancient literary material, often from the same eras in which the events of the Bible occurred.
Regarding the Old Testament, while the book of Genesis extends way back into early history, the rest of the Old Testament falls into a general time span of 1500 to 400 BC. Starting around 1200 BC we find a number of ancient literary works that are relevant to our study, and from about 850 BC we discover even more relevant literature. These written works were produced primarily by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In a few cases they were produced by the Israelites themselves. Much of this written material comes from royal annals in which the ancient kings recorded the events of their reign. In addition to the royal annals, however, there is a wide range of ancient sources written from 1500 to 400 BC that corroborate details in the Bible. These sources include letters, financial transactions, literary compositions (e.g., stories, poems), and seals (personal stamps for imprinting one’s name or title into a clay seal). Fortunately, much of this ancient literary material has been translated into English and is now accessible to us. Throughout the Old Testament portion of this book, I will frequently cite from these English translations of the ancient works.
Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian (484–425 BC).
The second line of evidence I explore is the archaeological evidence. While most of the literary evidence discussed can also be considered archaeological (since most of it was discovered by archaeologists and much of it has been translated by archaeologists), for clarity and convenience I have separated the discussion of literary material from the nonliterary archaeological material. In this category I discuss excavated material culture
such as city walls, gates, houses, and temples. Archaeological exploration and excavations are ongoing, and there are always exciting new discoveries being announced and discussed. I have attempted to bring as much of this newly discovered material as possible into our discussions whenever it is relevant. Furthermore, I have tried whenever possible to reference the archaeologists themselves and their published material rather than secondary popular sources.
The New Testament era covers a much narrower window than the Old Testament, basically corresponding to the first century AD. Of course, for this later time frame there are hundreds of relevant literary works available, generally written in either Greek or Latin but available to us in English translation. From the first century BC to the second century AD, there are a number of prolific writers—including historians, philosophers, geographers, and politicians—who produced a phenomenal amount of literary material. Particularly helpful for our study are the historians Pliny, Plutarch, Strabo, Livy, Suetonius, Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Appian, Diodorus Siculus, and Josephus. The writings of Cicero and Seneca are also helpful. In discussing examples from the New Testament, I frequently cite from these sources (usually using Harvard’s Loeb Classical Library English translation; an exception will be Suetonius’s The Twelve Caesars, where I cite from the Robert Graves translation in the Penguin Classics series).
Cicero, a Roman statesman, philosopher, lawyer, and writer (106–43 BC).
For New Testament archaeological evidence, I often look at excavated structures such as temples, roads, and bathhouses. I also include inscriptions discovered on monuments, statues, and roadways, even though technically this is literary evidence. Likewise, thousands of coins have been discovered in archaeological excavations of New Testament sites, and often both the written text and the visual depictions on these coins are helpful in our discussion of historicity.
At the end of each article, I provide a list of academic sources for those who want to continue studying or who want to be sure that our discussion is truly a reflection of the top scholarship in the field. Most of these academic sources are available in university and seminary libraries and even in some larger public libraries.
I have also provided the titles for numerous articles in Wikipedia. While many scholars disdain Wikipedia because of its lack of tight academic controls, I still find it to be helpful because of its easy and quick accessibility.
A Brief Word about Spelling Differences
Throughout this book we will be dealing with inscriptions and literary works written over two to three thousand years ago in Akkadian, Egyptian, Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and other ancient languages. Often we will deal with proper names that have been transliterated through two or three different languages. For example, the royal annals of the Assyrian kings are normally written in Akkadian. Thus the names of the Assyrian kings are recorded in Akkadian. The authors of the Old Testament translated/transliterated those names into Hebrew. Our English Bible translators then take those Hebrew names and translate/transliterate them into English. Yet many of the original nonbiblical texts that I cite in this book have transliterated the names straight from the original language (e.g., Akkadian) into English. Thus the spelling of proper names in the scholarly translations of ancient texts often varies slightly from what we see in our Bibles. But don’t worry—scholars are almost always certain of the identification of these names, and readers will usually be able to make that identification themselves as well. I will point out the spelling variations when they are not obvious.