Handbook of PVC Pipe Design and Construction: (First Industrial Press Edition)

Preface

PVC pipe’s combination of strength, durability, and versatility has made it the pipe most often installed in the United States and Canada. The rise of PVC pipe to prominence is rooted in its inherent suitability for handling both the physical/mechanical and chemical/ environmental conditions associated with pipe infrastructure systems. PVC pipe does not corrode and is conservatively projected to perform in excess of 100 years.

Compared to alternative types of pipe, PVC pipe requires less energy to manufacture, transport, handle, install, and operate. PVC pipe is generally easier to install and can be joined to standard appurtenances without special connections or adaptor couplings. Typically, installed PVC pipe requires little or no maintenance.

In order to better meet the growing needs of design engineers, pipe utility managers, and students, this new edition of Handbook of PVC Pipe Design and Construction presents the latest information on the design and installation of PVC pipe. It provides practical engineering, construction, and operations information applicable to underground PVC piping systems.

Handbook of PVC Pipe Design and Construction, 5th edition, is the collaborative result of thousands of hours of research and review. Section and subsection numbering, as well as figure and table designation, allows for easy reference and quick access to contents. As in previous editions, emphasis is placed on general principles, useful empirical rules, and practical design and installation approaches. Also presented are consensus recommendations of industry leaders, primarily from North America but also from around the globe.

All chapters are updated and new chapters have been added to the fifth edition. The material on pipe installation has been split into three chapters: general construction, pressure pipe installation, and nonpressure pipe installation. A chapter on trenchless technology has been added, providing technical guidance for this quickly growing market segment.Likewise, PVCO pipe is now discussed in its own chapter.

In the references provided the reader will find further information on related topics. Updated standards and manuals along with current contact information are listed.

English units are used in the Handbook, since North America has not fully converted to Système International (SI). However, SI units are included in many tables and charts. In addition, a unit conversion table is provided at the end of the book.

Handbook users are invited to contact Uni-Bell’s staff of engineers for additional technical support or to obtain clarification on information contained here. Technical services are available on request through member companies or through direct request to Uni-Bell. A directory of the current membership of the Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association is available at www.uni-bell.org.

The statements contained in Handbook of PVC Pipe Design and Construction, 5th edition, are those of the Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association. They are not warranties, nor are they intended to be such. Inquiries on specific products, product attributes, and manufacturer warranties should be directed to member companies.

Dallas, Texas

November 2012

First edition, Oct. 1977

Second edition, March 1982

Third edition, Sept. 1991

Fourth edition, August 2001

CHAPTER 1

Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe

PVC: A Revolutionary Pipe Material

•

Thermoplastics and Thermosets

•

History of PVC

•

PVC Pipe Advantages

•

PVC Pipe Technology

Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction

1.2 PVC: A Revolutionary Pipe Material

1.3 Thermoplastics and Thermosets

1.4 History of PVC

1.5 PVC Pipe Advantages

1.5.1 Corrosion Resistance

1.5.2 Chemical Resistance

1.5.3 Light Weight

1.5.4 Flexibility

1.5.5 Long-Term Tensile Strength

1.5.6 Watertight Joints

1.5.7 Abrasion/Wear Resistance

1.5.8 Impact Strength

1.5.9 Hydraulic Efficiency

1.5.10 Longer Lengths

1.5.11 Water Quality

1.5.12 Thermal Insulation

1.5.13 Flame Resistance

1.5.14 Cost Effectiveness

1.5.15 Environmental Benefit

1.6 PVC Pipe Technology

1.7 Sources

1.1 Introduction

Water and wastewater infrastructures are the lifelines of modern society. In North America, over 450 million people rely on more than 60,000 water and wastewater systems. As the first line of defense against waterborne disease, these systems significantly reduce sickness and related healthcare costs in society. Each year wastewater systems keep billions of tons of pollutants out of rivers and lakes and away from coastlines, maintaining water that is safe for fishing, swimming, and everyday use.

The reliability of these critically important systems is declining at an alarming rate. Escalating deterioration of water and sewer systems threatens the provision of safe drinking water and essential sanitation services, both today and for future generations. Quite simply, the piping materials that have historically served as the backbone of the water and sewer infrastructure system are deteriorating. During the past half century, PVC pipe has taken on a constantly increasing role in replacing these older materials with a modern alternative.

1.2 PVC: A Revolutionary Pipe Material

During the twentieth century a truly remarkable advancement in pipeline mate rials engineering occurred. The revolution was born in polymer science and has, through many decades of technological refinement, been accelerat ing. The polymer that has achieved frontrunner status throughout this pipe revolution is polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

In 1999 PVC pipe was recognized by Engineering News Record as one of the top 20 engineering innovations of the previous 125 years, due to the material’s combination of lightness, strength, ease of installation, and resistance to corrosion. In addition, PVC’s chemical resistance and high stiffness account for it becoming a popular pipe material for many pressure and nonpressure applications.

According to the results of a 2010 Trenchless Technology survey, in the sanitary sewer market PVC is the most accepted, most specified, and most easily maintained pipe material. PVC pipe also ranked highest in life cycle performance.

The use and availability of PVC pipe has grown steadily since the 1950s. Polyvinyl chloride has become the preferred pipe material for such major markets as sanitary sewers and water transmission and distribution. PVC pipe is also widely used in the following applications:

▪sewer forcemains

▪reclaimed water

▪storm sewer

▪land and highway drainage

▪agricultural and turf irrigation

▪trenchless installation.

Fig. 1.1 48-inch PVC pipe installation.

In North America each year the total installed length of PVC water and sanitary sewer pipe exceeds that of any alter native piping material. Much of this handbook is devoted to the proper application of PVC pipe within these major markets.

Through technological advancements, the PVC pipe industry has been able to expand production to include larger pipe diameters (e.g., Fig. 1.1) and allow for more efficient use of materials, such as the introduction of molecularly oriented PVC pipe, also known as PVCO (detailed in Chapter 14).

More recent improvements in PVC technology have opened the door to the trenchless market; such improvements include self-restrained joints and the technology to fuse PVC pipe in the field.

1.3 Thermoplastics and Thermosets

PVC is part of the large, complex, and constantly developing group of plastics. Like metals and other pipeline materials, plastics possess a wide range of properties that lend themselves to numerous applications. Structurally, plastic materials used for pipe production can exhibit properties ranging from soft and flexible to hard and rigid.

Plastic pipe materials may be divided into two basic groups: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics, as the name implies, soften when heated and harden when cooled. They can be formed and re-formed repeatedly, but the reprocessing steps must be controlled and limited to ensure retention of original performance properties. PVC is a thermoplastic; it is manufactured using an extrusion process, which is described in Chapter 4. The capacity to be reheated and re-formed also enables PVC pipe to be manufactured with post-extrusion, heat-formed bell ends for jointing. PVC fittings are generally made in an injection molding process or a fabrication process through the assembly of molded or extruded parts. Chapter 4 describes both manufacturing processes.

Thermoset plastics go through a soft plastic stage only once, then harden irreversibly and cannot again be softened without incurring permanent damage. Some of the more common thermoset plastics used for pipe are glass-fiber-reinforced thermosetting resin and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).

1.4 History of PVC

Polyvinyl chloride was discovered in the nineteenth century when scientists observed that the organic chemical gas vinyl chloride (C2H3Cl)—itself a recently created compound—reacted in a test tube upon exposure to sunlight to form an off-white solid material. This result represented simple polymerization of the vinyl chloride, forming a new plastic material, polyvinyl chloride.

Subsequent investigation of the new polymer at first created great ex citement and, somewhat later, great disappointment. The scientists were astonished by the incredible new plastic material, which seemed nearly inert to most chemicals and, in fact, virtually indestructible. However, they soon found the material so resistant to change that they were forced to concede that it could not be easily formed or processed into useful applications. Soon thereafter, PVC was seen as another of science’s great discoveries that had no apparent application, and for a while the world forgot about the unique new plastic.

It was not until the 1920s that curiosity again brought polyvinyl chloride into the limelight, and scientists in Europe and North America launched an extended campaign that eventually brought PVC plastics to the modern world. Technology continued to evolve worldwide, but particularly in Germany, where PVC was used in its unplasticized, rigid form. In 1931, PVC compounds were developed by German scientists, and millions of pounds of PVC were produced, some for pipe. In large part, the PVC pipe industry was born out of a necessity created by World War II. Again, it was German scientists and engineers who turned to PVC, using it as a pipe material to quickly restore essential water and wastewater pipelines in cities damaged by Allied bombings. Several of these earliest PVC pipelines are still in service, providing testimony to PVC’s outstanding durability.

Before the Second World War, and to some extent during the war, PVC processing was largely carried out on machinery developed for rubber or celluloid. Even immediately after the war, the technology remained fairly primitive and the processing machinery was not engineered specifically for PVC. In the two decades following the war, there were considerable advances in PVC technology, both in formulation and processing. During this time, the development of more effective stabilizers, lubricants, and processing aids, together with processing machinery engineered specifically for PVC, allowed for increasing success in the extrusion of quality, rigid (unplasticized) PVC pipe. The result was that PVC pipe began competing with traditional products in a number of major markets, including sewer and drainage, water distribution, electrical conduit, chemical processing, and drain, waste, and vent plumbing.

PVC pipe’s success in North America parallels what occurred in Europe. After 1951, when it was introduced in North America, PVC became the largest volume plastic piping material. In 1955, the year the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) organized a group to write plastic pipe standards, North American plastic pipe shipments totaled just under 40 million pounds. By 1968, sales of PVC pipe surpassed 200 million pounds annually.

Figure 1.2 charts worldwide PVC pipe industry growth from the mid-1970s to 2010, a growth rate that has been nothing short of phenomenal. Factors responsible include continuing advancements in pro cessing technology, improved joining materials, continuing standardiza tion programs, improved quality control testing, and a steady increase in the understanding and acceptance of PVC by designers, contractors, and municipalities.

Fig. 1.2 World PVC pipe and fittings industry growth.

1.5 PVC Pipe Advantages

The range of useful properties afforded by PVC makes it one of the most versatile of all pipe materials, a fact confirmed by the variety of applications and markets served by PVC pipe. Specification or use of PVC pipe is justified by one or several of the attributes here discussed.

1.5.1 Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion is the leading cause of the water main break epidemic in North America, estimated at some 300,000 breaks annually. All told, leaking pipes lose some 2.6 trillion gallons of drinking water every year, according to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). This is 17% of all water pumped in the United States. Moreover, according to a 2002 Congressional study, this loss is a drag on the economy, costing U.S. drinking water and wastewater systems over $50.7 billion annually, translating into more than $1 trillion over the next 20 years.

PVC pipe is a non-conductor of electricity and immune to electrochemical reactions caused by acids, bases, and salts that cause corrosion in metals. Since this characteristic exists both inside and outside the pipe, PVC needs no expensive coatings or liners and can be expected to outlast pipes made from alternate materials.

1.5.2 Chemical Resistance

PVC pipes exhibit resistance to a wide range of chemicals at temperatures up to 140°F. PVC is resistant to chemicals normally found or used in homes, although some industrial applications may require an evaluation of chemical resistance. The chemical resistance ability of PVC is further evidenced by its frequent use as a protective liner for other pipe materials.

1.5.3 Light Weight

PVC pipes offer a tremendous weight advantage, which is a particularly important safety aspect. The material’s ability to be handled more easily than other piping materials minimizes worker injury and facilitates lower cost transportation and installation. One person can easily carry two 20-ft lengths of 4-in. PVC pipe. According to the United States Bureau of Labor, the plastic piping industry has an outstanding safety record, experiencing far fewer injuries and illness in every phase of production on average than similar industries.

1.5.4 Flexibility

PVC pipe’s resistance to fracture is an extremely important performance advantage. While PVC pipe is made from rigid (unplasticized) PVC compound, the pipe itself has the ability to yield under loading without fracturing. PVC’s modulus of elasticity is a major advantage in underground applications, particularly where soil movement or vibration is anticipated. In pressure applications, PVC’s modulus of elasticity also reduces the magnitude of pressure surges (i.e., water hammer).

1.5.5 Long-Term Tensile Strength

PVC pipe compounds are formulated to attain long-term tensile strength. The long-term hydrostatic design basis (HDB) for PVC is two or more times that of other common thermoplastic pipe materials.

1.5.6 Watertight Joints

A major requirement for nearly all piping applications is joint tightness. PVC pipe is available with deep insertion, push-together gasketed joints, which consistently outperform joints of alternative pipe products. PVC pipes are easy to assemble, and a pipeline can be filled, tested, and placed in service immediately after assembly.

As mentioned previously, the ASCE estimates that 2.6 trillion gallons of potable water are lost annually through leaking pipes. This loss represents a waste of $4.1 billion dollars’ worth of electricity needed for pumping. PVC joints are leak-free, eliminating these additional pumping costs.

1.5.7 Abrasion/Wear Resistance

PVC pipe exhibits outstanding resistance to wear and abrasion. PVC pipe has proven itself more durable than pipes of metal, concrete, or clay for the transport of abrasive slurries.

1.5.8 Impact Strength

Under normal conditions, PVC pipe possesses relatively high resistance to impact damage compared to pipes made from clay, concrete, and most other conventional materials. Even though PVC pipe does exhibit a reduction in impact strength at very low temperatures, its impact strength remains more than adequate, usually exceeding that of alternate pipe materials.

1.5.9 Hydraulic Efficiency

PVC pipe provides smooth wall surfaces that reduce fluid friction and resistance to flow. This hydraulic smoothness inhibits slime build-up in sewers and virtually eliminates tuberculation and encrustation in water distribution mains. The end results are a more efficient pipeline design and significantly lower maintenance costs.

1.5.10 Longer Lengths

PVC pipe generally is available in standard lengths of 14 and 20 ft. These long lengths reduce the number of joints required for an application compared to most other pipe products. Fewer joints allow for faster, more efficient installation.

1.5.11 Water Quality

PVC pipe’s resistance to corrosion and chemical attack ensures it will not react with drinking water. PVC pressure pipes do not adversely affect water quality and do not produce corrosion byproducts, even after decades of use. PVC is so safe that it is used for intravenous medical tubing, and it is the pipe of choice for ecologically sensitive environments like saltwater aquariums, which must use the most inert and safe pipe materials available.

In programs dating back to the mid-1960s, PVC water pipes have been tested extensively to verify their safety for drinking water. Literally millions of water quality tests have been performed on PVC pipe in the last fifty years. PVC water pipe products are listed to NSF Standard 61, Drinking Water Components–Health Effects and are approved around the world for water transmission and distribution pipes.

1.5.12 Thermal Insulation

PVC has lower thermal conductivity than traditional pipe materials. This characteristic makes PVC pipe desirable for a variety of thermal insulation applications.

1.5.13 Flame Resistance

PVC pipe is difficult to ignite: Its sponta neous ig nition temperature is 850°F, well above that of most construction materials. PVC pipe is sometimes referred to as self-extinguishing; it will not burn in the absence of an external ignition source. Because of PVC’s flame resistance, it is used to manufacture fire protection gear.

Fig. 1.3 PVC pipe for potable water service, marked to show NSF Standard 61 certification.

1.5.14 Cost Effectiveness

In light of all the above mentioned attributes of PVC pipe, it is not surprising that it is competitive with other pipes, particu larly where installation and life cycle operating costs are taken into consid eration.

1.5.15 Environmental Benefit

For real sustainability, a pipe material must have long-term performance qualities. Furthermore, a piping material’s production must allow for efficient resource management.

PVC piping is one of the world’s most sustainable products, making it ideal for long-term use in underground infrastructure. It requires less energy and fewer nonrenewable resources to manufacture than alternative pipe products and its production creates virtually no waste. Moreover, it is produced with sustainable and abundant resources: chlorine, which is derived from salt, and domestically produced natural gas, the use of which helps reduce consumption of imported oil.

PVC pipe manufacturing is extremely efficient. Manufacturing waste, or regrind, can be returned directly to the extrusion process. An independent study has shown that PVC pipe uses one quarter of the energy needed to make concrete pipe and half that required for iron pipe. There are no smokestacks at PVC pipe facilities, and the product is completely recyclable, making its environmental footprint smaller than competing piping materials. By comparison, the cement industry is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world. In addition, far less energy is needed to recycle PVC pipe than what is required to recycle metal pipe.

Certain ASTM and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) standards provide for recycled content in finished PVC pipe products, and markets for recycled PVC continue to grow. However, very little PVC pipe has yet to enter the recycling stream, due to its great durability.

PVC pipe’s ecological attributes have been documented in numerous scientific life cycle assessments from raw material extraction to product end-of-life. But, as this overview has discussed, its greatest environmental attribute is exceptional durability and corrosion resistance—which means that its use in water piping systems improves water conservation and lowers replacement, maintenance, and repair costs.

A study by the American Water Works Association Research Foundation recently put the life expectancy of PVC pipe at more than 100 years; a European study gave PVC pipe a design life of 170 years.

1.6 PVC Pipe Technology

Through research and development, the PVC pipe industry is striving to make the best possible pipe and fittings products, continually improving its technology. With the ability to draw from PVC pipe’s worldwide record, and with the opportunity to learn from the shortcomings of predecessor pipe products, the industry will maintain and continue to improve upon PVC pipe’s advantages. PVC pipe is a product of modern technology, offering reliable and durable service to a variety of consumers: contractors, engineers, operators, industries, utilities, and irri gation districts. It is a tried and proven performer, with inherently superior characteristics and comprehensive engineering design.

1.7 Sources

125 Years of Innovation, Engineering News Record. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, NY (Oct. 18, 1999).

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Structural Plastics Design Manual, ASCE Manual No. 63. ASCE (1984).

American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Long-Term Performance Prediction for PVC Pipe, No. 2879. AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, CO (2005).

Baird, G., The silver bullet for aging water distribution systems? AWWA Journal (June 2011).

Bulkey, C.W., Morin, R.G., Stockwell, A.J., Vinyl polymers and copolymers. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia 1968, 45(14A) (Oct. 1968).

Comparative Analysis Study of Pipe Materials for Large Diameter Transmission Watermains. Cole Engineering/City of Toronto (2011).

Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Inventory of Nine Plastic Resins and Four Polyurethane Precursors. Franklin Associates, Kansas (July 2010).

Henson, J.H.L., Whelan, A., Developments in PVC Technology. National College of Rubber Technology, London (Feb. 1973).

Huelsman, T., Nowack, R.E., 70 Years of Experience with PVC Pipes. 13th World Pipe Symposium, Milan, Italy (April 2004).

Life Cycle Assessment of a PVC-U Solid Wall Sewer Pipe System. The European Plastics Pipes and Fittings Association (October 2010).

McJunkin, F.E., Pineo, C.S., Role of Plastic Pipe in Community Water Supplies in Developing Countries. Agency for International Development (1971).

Modern Plastics. McGraw-Hill Publications, New York, NY (Jan., annually).

NSF International ANSI/NSF Standard 61, Drinking Water System Components—Health Effects (2010).

Penn, W.S., PVC Technology, 3rd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY (1971).

Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI), Committee on Resin Statistics, Facts & Figures of the U.S. Plastics Industry. Washington, DC (1997).

Trenchless Technology. 2010 Pipe Materials Guide (August 2010).

World PVC Demand. SRI International (1989).

CHAPTER 2

Raw Materials

PVC Pipe Compounds

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Gasket Materials

Table of Contents

2.1 Introduction

2.2 PVC Pipe Compounds

2.2.1 PVC Resin

2.2.2 Properties of PVC Compounds

2.2.3 Cell Class and Plastic Pipe Material Code

2.3 Gasket Materials

2.4 Sources

2.1 Introduction

Gasketed joint PVC pipe derives its physical properties and performance characteristics from the properties of its raw materials. The essential components of gasketed PVC pipe are two polymeric materials: PVC compounds and elastomeric seal compounds. The following brief summary of these materials’ properties provides a solid foundation for understanding and appreciation of pipe capabilities and limitations.

2.2 PVC Pipe Compounds

PVC pipe manufacturers purchase raw materials in one of two forms:

▪pre-blended PVC extrusion compound

▪PVC resin and other ingredients for preparation of their own compounds.

Most major manufacturers choose the second option, blending their own extrusion compounds.

2.2.1 PVC Resin

In North America, PVC resin, the building block of PVC pipe, is derived from saltwater and natural gas. Before it is processed into PVC pipe compound, PVC resin resembles granulated sugar in appearance and texture. The resin offers excellent physical, chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties for PVC pipe; however, without additional processing, it cannot be extruded successfully into finished PVC pipe.

Compounds made from PVC resins are of three types: plastisols, flexibles, and rigids. Each compound type is used in the manufacture of different types of PVC products: Plastisols may be used in production of footwear; flexibles, which contain plasticizers, may be used in production of hose; and rigids, which do not contain plasticizers, are used in the production of PVC pipe.

2.2.2 Properties of PVC Compounds

Rigid PVC compounds are mixtures of PVC resin and a combination of stabilizers, lubricants, pigments, and modifiers. Rigid compounds prepared for PVC pipe extrusion are carefully designed and developed to provide specific properties that are application-dependent. For example, relatively high tensile strength is required for PVC pressure pipe, while nonpressure pipe performance relies more critically on modulus of elasticity.Therefore, formulating compounds for a specific application is an integral part of PVC pipe production.

Rigid PVC pipe compounds designed for transport of potable water must meet additional criteria based on toxicological properties and design stress properties. Design stress properties are demonstrated by long-term testing under hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic design stress ratings are established after long-term hydrostatic testing in accordance with ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials) D2837. Certification of potable water quality by an independent laboratory is provided with purchased PVC water pipe, assuring the user of its inherent health benefit.

2.2.3 Cell Class and Plastic Pipe Material Code

To define the properties of PVC compounds, ASTM has established standard specification D1784, Standard Specification for Rigid Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) Compounds. This specification defines a five-digit cell class designation system, which describes minimum physical properties for an example compound, as shown in Table 2.1.

The five properties designated in Table 2.1 are: (1) name of base resin, (2) Izod impact strength, (3) tensile strength, (4) elastic modulus in tension, and (5) deflection temperature under heat and load. Figure 2.1 shows how this classification system can describe minimum properties for an example compound. The cell-type format provides the means for identification, close characterization, and specification of material properties, alone or in combination, for a broad range of materials. This format, however, is subject to possible misapplication, since unobtainable property combinations might be selected by a user unfamiliar with commercially available materials. The manufacturer should be consulted.

Prior to the development of the current cell classification system for PVC compounds defined in ASTM D1784, PVC pipe compounds were specified by means of a four-digit plastic pipe material code. The former plastic pipe material code defined three properties of a designated PVC compound: one digit for Izod impact, one digit for chemical resistance, and two digits describing hydrostatic design stress in units of 100 psi. Figure 2.2 shows how the former material code describes the specific properties of an example PVC pipe compound.

PVC compounds are produced in vast variety; the properties afforded by specific compounds may be easily identified and compared with standard requirements by defining the appropriate cell classifications for the compounds.compounds for ASTM D1784 (Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA. Reprinted with permission.)

Table 2.1 Class requirements for rigid poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride) (CPVC) compounds for ASTM D1784 (Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA. Reprinted with permission.)

AAll compounds covered by this specification, when tested in accordance with Test Method ASTM D 635, shall yield the following results: average extent of burning, 25 mm;average time of burning, <10 s.

Note: The