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Beyond Decommissioning: The Reuse and Redevelopment of Nuclear Installations
Azioni libro
Inizia a leggereLunghezza: 786 pagine8 ore
- Editore:
- Elsevier Science
- Pubblicato:
- Jun 8, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780081028759
- Formato:
- Libro
Descrizione
Beyond Decommissioning: The Reuse and Redevelopment of Nuclear Installations presents the most up-to-date research and guidance on the reuse and redevelopment of nuclear plants and sites. Consultant Michele Laraia extensively builds upon experience from the redevelopment of non-nuclear industrial sites, a technical field that has considerably predated nuclear applications, to help the reader gain a very thorough and practical understanding of the redevelopment opportunities for decommissioned nuclear sites. Laraia emphasizes the socioeconomic and financial benefits from very early planning for site reuse, including how to manage the decommissioning transition, anticipate financial issues, and effectively utilize available resources.
With an increasing number of decommissioning projects being conducted worldwide, it is critical that knowledge gained by experts with hands-on experience is passed on to the younger generation of nuclear professionals. Besides, this book describes the experiences of non-nuclear organizations that have reutilized the human, financial, and physical site assets, with adaptations, for a new productive mission, making it a key reference for all parties associated with nuclear operation and decommissioning. Those responsible for nuclear operation and decommissioning are encouraged to incorporate site reuse within an integrated, beginning-to-end view of their projects. The book also appeals to nuclear regulators as it highlights more opportunities to complete nuclear decommissioning safely, speedily, and in the best interests of all concerned parties.
Includes lessons learned from worldwide case studies of reuse and repurposing of nuclear plants from both the nuclear and non-nuclear industries Provides practical guidance on a broad-spectrum of factors and opportunities for nuclear decommissioning Identifies the roles and responsibilities of parties involved, including nuclear operators, regulators and authorities, land planners and environmentalistsInformazioni sul libro
Beyond Decommissioning: The Reuse and Redevelopment of Nuclear Installations
Lunghezza: 786 pagine8 ore
Descrizione
Beyond Decommissioning: The Reuse and Redevelopment of Nuclear Installations presents the most up-to-date research and guidance on the reuse and redevelopment of nuclear plants and sites. Consultant Michele Laraia extensively builds upon experience from the redevelopment of non-nuclear industrial sites, a technical field that has considerably predated nuclear applications, to help the reader gain a very thorough and practical understanding of the redevelopment opportunities for decommissioned nuclear sites. Laraia emphasizes the socioeconomic and financial benefits from very early planning for site reuse, including how to manage the decommissioning transition, anticipate financial issues, and effectively utilize available resources.
With an increasing number of decommissioning projects being conducted worldwide, it is critical that knowledge gained by experts with hands-on experience is passed on to the younger generation of nuclear professionals. Besides, this book describes the experiences of non-nuclear organizations that have reutilized the human, financial, and physical site assets, with adaptations, for a new productive mission, making it a key reference for all parties associated with nuclear operation and decommissioning. Those responsible for nuclear operation and decommissioning are encouraged to incorporate site reuse within an integrated, beginning-to-end view of their projects. The book also appeals to nuclear regulators as it highlights more opportunities to complete nuclear decommissioning safely, speedily, and in the best interests of all concerned parties.
Includes lessons learned from worldwide case studies of reuse and repurposing of nuclear plants from both the nuclear and non-nuclear industries Provides practical guidance on a broad-spectrum of factors and opportunities for nuclear decommissioning Identifies the roles and responsibilities of parties involved, including nuclear operators, regulators and authorities, land planners and environmentalists- Editore:
- Elsevier Science
- Pubblicato:
- Jun 8, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780081028759
- Formato:
- Libro
Informazioni sull'autore
Michele Laraia, a chemical engineer by background, gained his first degree at the University of Rome. In 1975 he began to work at Italy's Regulatory Body, since 1982 as licensing manager of decommissioning projects. From July 1991, Michele worked at the International Atomic Energy Agency, Waste Technology Section, as Unit Leader responsible for decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear installations and environmental remediation. The objectives of the work were to provide guidance to Member States on the planning and implementation of nuclear decommissioning and site remediation, to disseminate information on good practices, and to provide direct assistance to Member States in the implementation of their programmes. Following his retirement in November 2011 Michele offers consultant services in the above-mentioned areas.
Correlati a Beyond Decommissioning
Anteprima del libro
Beyond Decommissioning - Michele Laraia
Beyond Decommissioning
The reuse and redevelopment of nuclear installations
First Edition
Michele Laraia
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Preface
Disclaimer
Dedication
1: Introduction
Abstract
Disclaimer
2: The fundamentals of industrial redevelopment
Abstract
2.1 Adaptive reuse
2.2 Industrial heritage
2.3 The link and tension between preservation and adaptive reuse
2.4 The museums
2.5 Indicators of success
2.6 Knowledge management
2.7 Change management
2.8 The aesthetic factor
Disclaimer
3: Early planning, preparatory steps, crucial decisions, implementation, and beyond: the phases of redevelopment
Abstract
3.1 Decommissioning to brownfield for repowering or sale/redevelopment (Raimi, 2017)
3.2 Decommissioning to greenfield for sale or redevelopment (Raimi, 2017)
Disclaimer
4: Redevelopment as an innovative approach to nuclear decommissioning
Abstract
4.1 Sustainability
4.2 Typical reuse/redevelopment approaches
4.3 Challenges to reusing nuclear sites
4.4 Designing a nuclear facility to become part of the local community
Disclaimer
5: Relevant factors for redevelopment
Abstract
5.1 The economics
5.2 The public and other stakeholders
5.3 Staff and skills
5.4 Ownership, sponsors, and stewardship
5.5 Radiological and non-radiological criteria for the end state
5.6 Long-term site mission
5.7 Interim use
5.8 Age and conditions of facility
5.9 Key assets
5.10 Project risks
Disclaimer
6: Experience and lessons learned
Abstract
6.1 Power plant sites and large industrial complexes, including land areas and infrastructure
6.2 Large buildings
6.3 Bunkers, tunnels, and other underground installations
6.4 Contaminated land areas
6.5 Research reactors and other small facilities
6.6 Tall structures
6.7 Others
Disclaimer
7: Case studies of nuclear redevelopment
Abstract
7.1 Rancho Seco NPP redevelopment
7.2 SATSOP redevelopment
7.3 The Superfund program
7.4 Heritage Minerals Site, Manchester, NJ (Asbury Park Press, 2015)
7.5 Yankee Rowe NPP, MA (Hamilton et al., 2005)
7.6 Nuclear Lake, NY, United States
7.7 Chapelcross NPP, United Kingdom (Dumfries and Galloway, 2017)
7.8 Calder Hall NPP, United Kingdom (Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, 2007)
7.9 Winfrith, United Kingdom—From Nuclear R&D Site to Science and Technology Park
7.10 Harwell Southern Storage Area, United Kingdom
7.11 Dounreay Site Remediation, United Kingdom
7.12 Experience from decommissioning at ÚJV, Czech Republic (Podlaha and Tous, 2017)
7.13 Barsebäck NPP, Sweden
7.14 Case histories and lessons learned
Disclaimer
8: Conclusions and recommendations
Glossary
Acronyms
Additional Bibliography (websites accessed on 29 December 2018)
Index
Copyright
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Preface
We do not need magic to transform our world. We carry all the power we need inside ourselves already. We have the power to imagine better.
J. K. Rowling, Harvard Commencement Address (2008)
Early attention to the redevelopment opportunities for decommissioned sites and facilities is a crucial aspect of nuclear decommissioning. Advance planning for post-decommissioning site redevelopment can ease the transition from operation to decommissioning, decrease the financial liabilities, ensure job continuity to operations staff and contractors, and mitigate the impact of decommissioning on the local stakeholders. Unfortunately, the lack of early planning for redevelopment is a reality in many nuclear decommissioning projects. In general, the prevailing attitude is that nuclear decommissioning is the (sad) ending of a successful story, and what follows to it is somebody else's care: instead, the post-decommissioning phase should be viewed as a great opportunity for the beginning of another successful story. This inadequacy may be due to insufficient understanding of redevelopment experience resulting from nonnuclear decommissioning projects. This book provides an overview of nuclear and nonnuclear decommissioning projects successfully completed with the redevelopment of the decommissioned sites. Lessons learned (not all successful experiences) from these projects are given in detail. The book includes also guidance on factors fostering—or militating against—the redevelopment of facilities and sites.
Nuclear operators including those responsible for decommissioning, decision makers at corporate and government level, regulatory bodies, local authorities, environmental planners, and the public at large are relevant stakeholders in site redevelopment and represent the main readership of this book. The book may be of special interest to owners and operators of nuclear facilities for which date and methods of final shutdown and dismantling have not yet been finalized. Especially when a facility does not have to permanently close down soon, there can be opportunities to ameliorate the closure strategy through an early appraisal of the potential redevelopment value of the facility and site assets. By illustrating the range of redevelopment options, and by highlighting the main factors promoting or hindering redevelopment, this book will hopefully spur those concerned with nuclear operation and decommissioning to evaluate reuse at an early stage.
The book will also be relevant to nuclear regulators: it will prove to them that incorporation of post-decommissioning redevelopment will help complete the decommissioning of obsolete facilities safely and in the best interest of all those affected, especially local communities. In reading this book the decision makers—ranging from governmental and local authorities to funding bodies—will also be acquainted with the broad benefits to the general public and the local communities resulting from the redevelopment of nuclear facilities and sites: these benefits include social, economic, environmental, and other forms of well-being. Finally, this book will provide information and guidance to a multitude of potential stakeholders whose interests center on decommissioned facilities and sites.
The main objective of this book is to circulate information and lessons learned on new productive uses of nuclear facilities and sites at the completion of decommissioning and after partial or total release from regulatory control. This is also meant to leverage the value of assets (land, buildings, and infrastructure) that can alleviate the economic burden of decommissioning.
On the international scale, this subject area has received limited attention. As an independent treatise, it has only been addressed in full by two IAEA reports:
Redevelopment of Nuclear Facilities after Decommissioning, Technical Reports Series No. 444, IAEA, Vienna, 2006, and
Redevelopment and Reuse of Nuclear Facilities and Sites: Case Histories and Lessons Learned, Nuclear Energy Series No. NW-T-2.2, IAEA, Vienna, 2011.
Both edited by the author of this book, and needing updating in the light of considerable progress acquired over the last 10 years. The information provided for individual facilities in those two IAEA publications has not been repeated here unless updates on reuse strategies for those facilities had been disclosed more recently. Therefore, the book's main focus is given to advances and achievements over the last 10 years (i.e., after all references for IAEA No. NW-T-2.2 had been assembled), and to the state of the art in the reuse and redevelopment of contaminated facilities and sites. This reflects in most references quoted, which have been published since 2009 or so. However, some fundamental references have been quoted to set the basis for further elaboration.
Any good redevelopment project should involve a process of looking both nation-wide and internationally at precedents, to learn from others’ experience and lessons learned. The lessons learned from similar projects, either by consultants or clients, are often available through publications or archived documentation. However, visits to ongoing projects of similar nature or direct feedback from those directly involved in those projects are indispensable to ensure success. This approach is the foundation of this book.
The redevelopment of nonnuclear assets has been a common practice long before nuclear reuse was even envisioned as an independent discipline. In recognition of the predominant edge acquired by the nonnuclear sector, a large share of this book is devoted to the achievements of nonnuclear industrial sites; and an attempt has been made to compare those achievements with options available to nuclear sites (still mostly at the planning stage). Learning from the nonnuclear sector serves another objective this book is devoted to. In the author's opinion, one of the plights affecting the nuclear sector comes from the inside, namely from the perfectionism the nuclear community inflicted upon themselves. The root cause of this perfectionism lies in the original sin of the nuclear energy, the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. The horror raised by these events pressured the nuclear community toward creating a perfect control system—in an imperfect world. For the nuclear world, the refusal to accept any standard less than perfect resulted in over-conservatism, frustration, isolation, and an unfounded superiority complex: in turn this attitude made nuclear installations more and more complicated and costly, and on the other side, scared the general public. By recognizing that nuclear redevelopment has a lot to learn from the nonnuclear experience, this book aims to instill a sense of normality and humility into the nuclear industry. The author feels that to see a true nuclear renaissance
the nuclear industry should be perceived by the public as little different from other forms of power generation, and basically just business as usual.
Another objective of this book is to highlight that planned redevelopment of the nuclear facilities and sites may facilitate the decommissioning process. In particular, this report aims at refuting the common understanding of decommissioning (the burden of liabilities and the destruction of assets) by highlighting a constructive view (the keeping or regaining of assets, or the development of new assets). In this sense, the book is promotional. It does not address any radiological or chemical contamination issues per se, for example, it does not describe numerical criteria for the release of sites/facilities, while recognizing that such criteria deeply affect the redevelopment options.
Structurally, this book first locates industrial reuse/redevelopment into the history of human activities, with a focus on industrial operations and transition to closures. Then the book establishes a baseline for industrial redevelopment, including the understanding of basic concepts and definitions. Third, the various phases of redevelopment are described in detail, beginning from conceptual planning through analysis of relevant factors, selection of alternatives, decision-making, detailed planning, execution of a project, and follow-on actions. The subsequent chapter is given to the application of redevelopment as an innovative approach. Then the book highlights numerous factors that affect the redevelopment of industrial buildings and sites. Factors of success or failure enable developers, planners, communities, and other stakeholders to anticipate the issues, benefits, and drawbacks attached to reuse projects, compare them and decide on a course of action. Based on experience, the book also tries to explore how any difficulties encountered may be mitigated. A number of individual projects are briefly discussed based on certain categories. Finally, detailed case studies from the nuclear sector are presented and discussed in depth.
The ubiquitous, international character of post-decommissioning redevelopment has been recognized in this book by quoting initiatives, plans, and facts from a number of countries (see Table below).
This is neither a textbook, nor is it academically oriented. Nor is the book intended as a prime aid to those beginning a scientific career oriented to decommissioning or environmental remediation (D&ER) technologies. Nor does the book intend to specifically address health and safety risks and precautions with respect to particular materials, conditions, or procedures. Consequently, the author recommends consulting applicable standards, laws, regulations, and experts for safety-related information.
The scope of the book assumes that D&ER has been completed at least in preliminary planning, and reuse/remediation need consideration at this stage (the earlier, the better). In fact, early consideration of site redevelopment is a factor of decommissioning planning and may require its iteration. Therefore, the book is meant to draw attention of those (governmental and local authorities, operators, waste managers, regulatory authorities, legal experts, demolition contractors, etc.) engrossed in the planning and implementation of D&ER, who wish to look ahead and enlarge their professional horizons to reuse/redevelopment (either per se as a post-decommissioning activity or preferably as a strategic element of D&ER). Further the book addresses those responsible for land planning including public authorities, architects, historians, environmentalists, real estate developers, and a wide range of other stakeholders (universities, researchers, industries at large).
The book is not intended to provide optimal solutions to individual redevelopment problems: each concrete redevelopment option will depend on multiple country or site-specific factors, which are impossible to quantify in generic formulas. Rather, through the use of concrete examples, the book illustrates a wide range of factors and possible solutions for further investigation.
The book uses narrative techniques to provide a more profound meaning and help the reader use imagination to visualize facts. (Actually it will be shown that the very subject of this book—redevelopment—has a lot to do with imagination.) Techniques applied in this book to enliven its style include backstory, flashback, imagery, celebrity quotes, a bit of humor, and others. For example, imagery creates visuals appealing to the reader's senses and involves figurative language. Likewise, the book makes wide use of anecdotes, newspaper articles, and stories of minor events leading to more significant consequences or bearing universal meaning.
The narrative style of this book (occasionally verging on colloquialism) can make it appealing to a more general class of readers, for example, the non-initiated, yet attracted by environmentalism, history, or social aspects.
Finally I hope it will not be said of this book: From the moment I picked up your book until I laid it down, I was convulsed with laughter. Someday I intend reading it.
Groucho Marx (1890–1977).
Disclaimer
Although the author has taken great care to review the reliability, completeness, and accuracy of the information contained in this book, neither he nor the publisher provides any warranties in this regard or assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from the use of this information. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be liable in the event of any conflict between this book and other sources of information.
The technical implications of the information contained in this book may vary widely based on the specific facts involved and should not replace consultation with professional advisors. Although all facts the author believes to be relevant are addressed, the book is not meant to be an exhaustive coverage on the subject.
The occasional mention of trade names or commercial products does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be viewed as an endorsement or recommendation. Statements that could appear as biased judgments are unintentional and are definitely not intended to be so, however, the author has taken full responsibility for them.
Dedication
To my wife Giovanna, who for 45 years has given me unconditional friendship, unwavering support, and love.
I am convinced that the world is not a mere bog in which men and women trample themselves in the mire and die. Something magnificent is taking place here amid the cruelties and tragedies, and the supreme challenge to intelligence is that of making the noblest and best in our curious heritage prevail.
Charles Austin Beard (1874–1948)
1
Introduction
Abstract
When nuclear decommissioning (in fact any form of industrial decommissioning) is reviewed in the light of long-term sustainable development, the potential for site redevelopment should not be disregarded. Sustainable development implies both economic development and preservation of assets, for example, land and buildings. The recycle of land in site redevelopment provides the opportunity of preserving more virgin
land for nonindustrial purposes. Economic development includes maintenance of specialist skills, social progress, and community links. These benefits can be gained by advance planning for site redevelopment aimed to provide job security in alternative production options. In addition, sustainable development implies a transparent decision-making policy and a long-term vision. This in turn requires that the industrial sector interact with a wide range of stakeholders and make good use of their constructive participation.
Keywords
Deindustrialization; Decommissioning; Industrial revolution; Industrial building; Nuclear building; Redevelopment
I am convinced that the world is not a mere bog in which men and women trample themselves in the mire and die. Something magnificent is taking place here amid the cruelties and tragedies, and the supreme challenge to intelligence is that of making the noblest and best in our curious heritage prevail.
Charles Austin Beard (1874–1948)
Since the beginning of human history, when given a chance, mankind has chosen to reuse existing inhabited sites and their infrastructure (e.g., dwellings, harbors, and roads) for new purposes, as needed, rather than to abandon existing sites and establish settlements anew. The somehow obvious reason is that the original sites were established for such convenient factors as water availability, ease of access, natural defensive features, etc. and the uncertainties in identifying and redeveloping new sites were not considered worth the risk in most cases. Of course, this does not account for cases of forced relocation due to overwhelming circumstances, for example, natural disasters, invasion by enemies, or new trading opportunities. One should also note that reusing an existing site often implies adapting the site to new demands and priorities, which is not necessarily easy and inexpensive. In the end the decision between reuse and restart has always required a (conscious or unconscious) trade-off of multiple factors.
There are thousands of sites worldwide that have been reused over centuries, while continual modifications were being undertaken to preserve the site usability for new functions. It will be enough to look at archeological sites. The following is a brief overview of ancient sites where new facilities were installed, taking advantage of site features inherited from former uses of the site. As well known, Rome wasn’t built in a day.
For almost 3000 years, different civilizations and institutions (Etruscans, ancient Romans, early Christianity, the Papal State, and the capital of the Italian State) have succeeded and transformed Rome sites while preserving a substantial unity. For example, the foundations of pagan temples were often reused to support Christian churches.
The Theatre of Marcellus (in Italian: Teatro di Marcello) is an ancient open-air theater in Rome. The theater was officially inaugurated in 12 BC by Augustus, the first Roman emperor. The theatre, the largest of its time in Rome, remained in use for three centuries. Then its structural materials were partly dismantled and reemployed for civilian buildings in the area. However, the theater statues were restored by Petronius Maximus in 421 CE; by that time, the remaining structure housed small residential dwellings. Throughout the Middle Ages the theater was used as a fortress and residence by noble families. This shielded the complex from decay. Later, in the 16th century, the residence of the Orsini family, designed by the famous architect Baldassare Peruzzi, was built atop the ruins of the ancient theater. Now the upper floors are divided into multiple apartments, and its surroundings are used for summer concerts (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Theatre of Marcellus, Rome, Italy. Photo by M. Laraia (2007).
Elsewhere in Italy there are many sites that have been continuously used for 2000 years. In Catania, Sicily, encompassed by the remains of the city walls from the time of Emperor Charles V, there stands the church of Saint Agatha in Prison; according to tradition, it was built over the prison where Saint Agatha was held during her trial and eventually passed away on 5th February 251 AD. It is possible that the prison was part of the administrative complex and residence of her prosecutor.
The doorway to the Baroque Church is mediaeval (around 1241) and was originally part of the facade of the ancient Norman cathedral, rescued from the ruins of the earthquake of 1693. It was reinstalled by Gian Battista Vaccarini, who designed and constructed the new church in the 18th century. What remains of that edifice today is a rectangular opening (5.9 m × 3.65 m) to the right of the nave of the church, whose thick walls (2 m) can be justified by their original defensive purpose. In the 1960s another space was discovered alongside the prison at a level lower than the current floor. This could be a lower prison reserved for those awaiting the death sentence, or a Christian or pagan basilica, but it also could be the gladiators’ baths (Fig. 1.2).
Fig. 1.2 The Church of Saint Agatha in Prison, Catania, Italy. Photo by M. Laraia (2018).
Discovered only in 1943, the Naumachie is the remains of an old Roman wall, 130 m long, with 18 niches that surrounded the gymnasium (a building for indoor sports activities). Built in the 1st-century BC, it is the second oldest structure in Taormina, Sicily. The name Naumachie (in Greek sea battle
) was wrongly given to the structure after the large water basin found here. However, the basin was not used to stage sea battles but was a reservoir used as a water supply for the gymnasium and the city. As shown in Fig. 1.3, part of the structure was later converted to private dwellings.
Fig. 1.3 Naumachie, Taormina, Italy. Photo by M. Laraia (2018).
Over the millennia, literally many thousands of structures have been reused for new purposes, as the few above-mentioned examples show. Reuse projects have addressed churches, theaters, hospitals, barns, just to name a few. This book, however, addresses only the reuse of industrial structures.
The industrial revolution, and the mass production associated with it, helped support workers and their families for almost two centuries and contributed to shaping the world's economy, social habits, and environment to this day. The industrial buildings and sites are a consequence of the industrial revolution: their sturdiness, large size, and appearance have transformed our landscapes and mindsets. The United Kingdom was the first industrial nation, followed by European nations, the United States, and eventually most nations of the world. However, all industries gradually became obsolete in technology or unproductive, and were replaced by more advanced industries or no industries at all. The developed countries’ society has changed from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based one in the period from mid-1960s to mid-1980s.
Following the industrial revolution, deindustrialization has generated thousands of deserted and unused industrial buildings worldwide. Complexes of these vacant buildings have created widespread phenomena, known to the specialists as industrial ruination. For many, industrial ruination has resulted in a kind of stigma. Deindustrialization is a process of social and economic change triggered by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a city, country, or region, of all types of industries but especially large industrial complexes (e.g., heavy industry or manufacturing industry). National policies and institutional changes have also contributed to deindustrialization such as economic restructuring and redistribution. Globalization is a popular term that encompasses these phenomena. With breakthroughs in transportation, communications, and information technology (IT), and a globalized economy that spurred foreign investment, capital mobility, and labor migration, industrial complexes moved to low-cost countries and were replaced by service companies (IT, real estate, etc.) and financial agencies typically concentrated in cities. Due to the urban growth, industrial complexes that used to be in the remote periphery of the city today are now inside the city. New business concepts, users’ and citizens’ environmental concerns have led to relocation of industrial functions to new areas, outside the city, leaving vacant sites behind.
Today's world coexists with a huge number of industrial ruins (sometimes called Contemporary Ruins, because they do not date back more than 100 years or so). These are public or private, designed for handicraft or mass production, residential, military, or commercial, and they may also be on vastly different scales, from small to large buildings, infrastructures, or entire ghost towns. These ruins include two categories: unfinished and abandoned buildings. The basic difference is that while the latter have had an operational lifespan ending with abandonment, the former have never been completed and used. These, one might say, were born as ruins, have no history, and have never known human attendance.
Deindustrialization reflected in severe economic, social, and environmental impacts on abandoned areas. Disused industrial areas became economically downgraded, socially distressed, and environmentally deteriorated through industrial contamination. No longer useful for their original functions, industrial buildings have remained as concrete memories of a long gone era. The pressing question is now what to do with these old buildings: do we demolish them and build afresh or do we invest in their redevelopment? This is the challenge that faces public authorities, architects, land planners, sociologists, and the general public at large.
Derelict land, according to the European Union, refers to land so damaged by industrial or other developments that it is incapable of beneficial use without treatment.
The European Union suggests Unused Area as one of the indicators of urban quality of life, the concept consisting in the combination of Derelict Land (as defined previously) and Contaminated Land (defined as any land that appears to be in such a condition—because of the substances that it contains—that water pollution or significant harm is being, or is likely to be caused
). The notion of derelict land may be considered almost a synonym for brownfield (Centre of Land Policy and Valuations, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, 2014).
Perceiving beauty in industrial buildings has been instrumental to their redevelopment, although beauty is not the only factor in their conservation. Years—often decades—after these buildings became obsolete and abandoned, their simple, wide-open spaces, and the visibility of their construction materials have kindled the imagination of new generations. Although there are many reasons for the reuse of industrial buildings and sites, the charm of the industrial esthetic has been often vital to the success of their rescue and redevelopment. Regardless of their dilapidated conditions and ruined shapes, former industrial buildings also represent a form of heritage in which people may recognize valuable cultural assets—a form of community capital. Consequently, many of these sites have been awarded a heritage designation intended to protect by the force of law and conserve the buildings, the surrounding land, and associated cultural values. Due to their architecture and evocative meanings, many of these vacant sites have become important landmarks (Sugden, 2017). For mankind, the remains of old industries offer a link with our ancestors, which can be passed on to our children and grandchildren.
It is interesting that some industrial buildings from the last century are still considered ugly
by many. And when such buildings are listed or receive public money for conservation, there is always a wave of protest. In truth, the debate is not different from the never-ending one about contemporary art. It must be recognized that beauty
is a very subjective notion.
Many contemporary buildings were designed in the brutalist
style of art. In London Southbank, the National Theatre was designed by Sir Denys Lasdun as a brutalist piece of architecture (1.4); it was officially opened by the Queen in 1976. It is a publicly funded performing arts hub, comprising of three auditoriums—The Olivier, The Lyttelton, and the small Dorfman Theatre. There are also rehearsal spaces on site, and workshops for set construction and painting, costume construction, and making of objects used by the actors. At the time of its opening, the building was both applauded by some as an icon of postwar architecture and mocked by others (Prince Charles) for looking like a nuclear power plant. In opinion surveys, the theater appears simultaneously in the top 10 most popular
and most hated
London buildings. While the comparison with a nuclear power plant can be acceptable (Fig. 1.5), it should not necessarily imply contempt.
Fig. 1.4 The brutalist
National Theatre, Southbank, London. Photo by M. Laraia.
Fig. 1.5 Magnox Trawsfynydd Site. Copyright Magnox Ltd.
The Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester, United Kingdom, highlights industrial applications and achievements in the Manchester region. The museum nucleus is the railway station—the oldest in the world—which started operation in 1830; the structures of the station are Grade I listed (see Glossary). Visitors can board the train on established days. In the past the museum railway was linked to the national railwork; unfortunately, the construction of a modern rail link in 2016 cut the link to the museum and reduced the museum line to the site boundaries. A legal case was raised to preserve the historic line, but eventually efficiency considerations prevailed; this denotes a typical debate when taking decisions about industrial heritage, namely efficiency vs preservation (Fig. 1.6). In the nuclear sector, the decommissioning strategy for the Garigliano NPP in Italy aims at unrestricted release of the site; but the reactor sphere designed by the famous architect Riccardo Morandi, which was declared part of Italy's architectural heritage, will not be dismantled (Fig. 1.7) (Laraia, 2017). However, the Dounreay reactor sphere (nicknamed Golf Ball
) will be eventually demolished, regardless its landmark status: the cost of maintenance (e.g., periodically repainting the huge structure subject to heavy corrosion by the adjacent sea) was considered unacceptably high, and other preservation options (e.g., hotel, museum, and even nightclub) considered unrealistic (BBC, 2017). The fate of the Dounreay dome was eventually sealed following a comprehensive options study and the participation of many stakeholders.
Fig. 1.6 Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester, United Kingdom. Photo by M. Laraia.
Fig. 1.7 Garigliano NPP, Italy stack and reactor sphere. Note: while the reactor sphere will be preserved, the stack in the middle of the picture was dismantled in November 2017. Photo by M. Laraia (2016).
The esthetic, historic, and cultural values of old buildings, facilities, and sites are not the only arguments eventually imposing conservation (a form of freezing
their conditions, which can be regarded by some as a burden, a nuisance, and a cost); in fact, redevelopment should be viewed as a broader opportunity than the mere conservation. Over the last few decades, redevelopment of obsolete industrial sites has gained extensive support due to factors as follows:
•Upgrading environmental and human health standards
•Removing the stigma associated with environmental contamination
•Reversing unemployment trends. Skills are typically available at existing industrial sites that can be reemployed for new uses
•Creating new environmental jobs
•Increasing property values and related tax revenues
•Achieving significant savings in infrastructure investment, due to the use of underutilized existing infrastructure
•Stimulating economic growth
•Increasing land availability and reducing pressure to develop greenfield sites (this is associated with the current shortage of virgin
industrial sites, and the desire of preserving them for recreational or other nonindustrial purposes)
•Giving preference to the development of new industry at sites that were previously used industrially. This includes economic advantages for redevelopment of brownfield
sites over greenfield
sites. And in general, less stringent environmental regulations apply to brownfield
than to greenfield
sites (see Chapter 5.5 for a comprehensive discussion on these points)
•Fulfilling requirements to reduce waste volumes for disposal. As the site is redeveloped there will be less pressure to demolish old buildings, which can instead be reused as such or with some adaptations
•Appreciating that old buildings have a superior status for new businesses and attract people. Certain types of businesses enjoy a unique prestige when situated in older buildings. In particular, businesses such as bookshops, ethnic restaurants, antique stores, and niche
shops flourish in old buildings. The strange layouts, the vestiges of former uses, the unusual corners, all of these strike imagination. Similarly, banks prefer to have old facades, even when situated in modern buildings as this conveys a reassuring sense of stability
•Finally, being aware that the preservation of historic buildings is a one-way process. Once a piece of history is demolished, it is gone forever (Rocchi, 2015)
The impact that ruins have on cities, regions, and in general, environment is undeniable. While historical (classical) ruins are respected as valuable heritage, the contemporary ruins discussed in Camocini and Nosova (2017) cause a different reaction from the local communities and the general public. They are often felt as negative elements that disfigure the environment, which bring about a tendency toward avoidance and various problems, for example, security, ownership disregard, maintenance, and demolition costs, and the expanding depreciation of surrounding districts. The other important issue is the lack of a general legislative framework about the growing spreading of contemporary ruins on a local, regional, or nation-wide scale, and the need for updated regulations.
However, the incompleteness of ruins triggers creativity induced by the dialog between an incomplete reality and the unlimited imagination of the viewer. This is how a building survives in the limbo between two temporal requirements: not yet distant past, as in the case of a historical ruin, and no longer present, as a contemporary human habitat. Its future is unclear and mysterious. This appeal lies largely in the concept of gradual decadence, slow abandonment, the inexorable flow of time. The sight of ruins evokes different feelings; nostalgia for an impossible return to the past and the discovery of an inaccessible past tend to attract a perverse type of tourism. Intervention strategies include actions based on an approach which is similar to that of the restoration of historical buildings, resulting as a chance to complete, preserve, reconvert, or demolish. The decision may be to demolish the residual testimonies and recreate a new urban fabric without any restrictions, or choose to preserve the ruin, building a new relationship between past and future
(Camocini and Nosova, 2017).
It may be worth stressing that the closure, decay, and the resulting need for redevelopment is not limited to large industrial buildings, viewed as the markers of a historic era: in fact, architecture changes as fast as today's world, and entire types of buildings disappear almost before our eyes. See text box below.
Arch Daily (2018) identifies six types of structures that came to light in modern times and are fast disappearing. Mostly inconspicuous and yet ubiquitous, the disappearance of these buildings raises a sense of nostalgia, rather than intellectual consideration. According to Arch Daily (2018), these six types are:
•Corner stores exist around the world, under many names: New York's bodegas (in fact, a Spanish name), Australia's milk bars, sari-sari stores in the Philippines. With the growth of large shopping malls, the family-owned corner store has been on a fast decline;
•Easily recognizable and barely large for a person and a phone, public phone booths have ubiquitously marked our society for decades. With the booming of the mobile phone, their fate was sealed. Many countries e.g. Belgium, Denmark, and Sweden have eliminated pay phones altogether, and their number continues to go down worldwide. Some cities have converted these booths into wi-fi hotspots. In the United Kingdom, many of the iconic red phone booths have been converted into tiny cafes, mobile phone repair shops, or defibrillators.
•Video rental stores appeared and disappeared within 20 years or so. Among the few remaining Blockbuster video stores in the United States are three stores in Alaska, where cold winters and slower internet connections still make video rental appealing; and it is reported that one in Oregon owes its survival to the local customers seeing it as more personal
than Netflix or other streaming sites.
•Gas stations. As fuel consumption has become smaller, and the price of land has escalated, a lot of gas stations have been shut down. Their large areas and lack of contiguous structure are good assets for such redevelopment options as art galleries, offices, and restaurants.
•Newsstands have ubiquitously dotted cities for many decades. The headlines attracted the passers-by and so the stands became centers of social aggregation. Besides, newsstands provided prospective entrepreneurs with an objective of upward mobility. Digitalization is growingly but inevitably killing these structures.
•Since the 1960s, automated photo booths have allowed us to stay for a few minutes away from the inquisitive crowd. Although the structure was tiny and basic, photo booths in shopping malls or train stations allowed some intimacy. In principle the booths may have been intended to produce passport photos, but the photos actually captured and preserved memories …
The redevelopment of industrial sites is a consolidated industry, and a lot of experience/expertise is available to reuse buildings, components, and the land. Unfortunately, the prompt redevelopment of nuclear sites after decommissioning lags behind and is not entirely optimized. Lessons learned during the redevelopment of nonnuclear industrial sites should be communicated to the decision makers and stakeholders in a nuclear decommissioning project, as well as to those responsible for site planning, the very purpose of this book.
A precautionary note: "The biggest difference between time and space is that you can’t reuse time (Merrick Furst, http://www.greatthoughtstreasury.com/author/merrick-furst). Eventually former industrial sites will be redeveloped anyhow, but typically such sites are kept idle for many years, often decades of no action until a redevelopment strategy is chosen. This delay causes undue care and surveillance expenses, deterioration, growing loss of interest and of momentum, and the resulting loss of resources—which can be permanent. If site reuse is delayed, say, for 20 years, the land upon which the plant sits will likely have a lower value than it would have had if the reuse had occurred with no such delay. In other words, there is an opportunity cost reflected in the reduction in the present value of the land. The economic or market value of any land reflects the stream of future profits, income, or noneconomic asset leverage
income" that the land can generate. (Note: vacant land generates no such income during this 20-year delay.) Financial details in this regard are provided in Williams et al. (2005).
In redevelopment terms, the nuclear industry is not different from other industries. As this book shows at length, the nuclear buildings and sites are not generally different in size, layout, and main constructional features from their nonnuclear equivalents. Actually many nuclear buildings are very similar to nonnuclear ones because their functions are the same (e.g., turbine buildings). Nuclear sites exist in both developed and developing countries, and house a wide range of nuclear and/or radiological facilities such as nuclear power reactors; research reactors; small medical, research and industrial facilities; isotope production facilities; nuclear fuel cycle facilities; and waste processing and storage installations. Multi-facility sites include nuclear power stations (with two, four, or more reactors), nuclear research centers (with research reactors, hot cells, laboratories, waste treatment and decontamination stations, etc.), medical centers, etc. Their size can span from a fraction of km² to many km². Nuclear buildings can be small (e.g., a radiobiology laboratory or a teletherapy department) or huge and massive (e.g., a power reactor building, a cooling tower). While a power reactor building has unique features, a lot of auxiliary buildings at nuclear sites are not very different from industrial warehouses, silos, bunkers, and the like (Figs. 1.8 and 1.9). Some nuclear buildings are uncontaminated, because they never handle radioactive substances; others have been contaminated by nuclear operations and must be decontaminated to make reuse possible. While some nuclear buildings look extraordinary and impressive to the non-initiated, others look simple and understandable to anybody.
Fig. 1.8 Salaspils reactor Latvia. Former Central Heating building reused as waste storage facility. Photo by M. Laraia (2008).
Fig. 1.9 Garigliano NPP, Italy; The ex-ECCS building redeveloped as radioactive waste store. Photo by M. Laraia.
The readers could raise a basic objection regarding the application of nonnuclear redevelopment experience to nuclear sites: these are often marked and haunted by an a priori
(somebody could say, irrational) stigma, the gut feeling
being that radiation is still looming even after decommissioning has been completed and the site officially cleared for unrestricted use. Obviously nonnuclear sites do not have this specific stigma, but they could be associated with other, equally significant, stigmas: one of these is the perceived persistence of hazardous substances, but a subtler stigma is described in Stadler (undated) and while referring to Austria, it could well refer to other countries. … The successful era of industrial monument preservation in the 1920s and 1930s was rudely interrupted by the events and effects of the war … The devastating effects of the Second World War led to a lasting and ultimately decade-long interruption to industrial monument preservation in Austria … the term ‘industry’ was tainted with the stigma of annihilation. Industry being associated with the war economy, the production of ‘important war materials’ using slave labor and above all the production of military equipment and armaments, no-one had any desire to preserve the memory of the period in the form of industrial monuments.
However, the preservation of industrial monuments in Austria enjoyed a renewed interest in the 1970s. This was partly due to the international events of 1968, with an opening up of petrified university environments and more attention being given to hitherto disregarded fields of research; new disciplines such as industrial history, industrial sociology, social history, economic history, and environmental history emerged.
The United Kingdom is another example of this shift of public sentiment. It should first be noted that United Kingdom was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, and as such, the country is dotted with literally many hundreds of industrial relics. After WWII UK had a profound disregard for its deserted industrial sites, with the dumping of garbage signifying a sentiment of disdain. Industrial monuments were considered symbols of a disturbing past, reminders of social and economic decline (e.g., the loss of the British Empire), and relics of hard labor and cruel working conditions. Abandoned sites were also associated with danger, delinquency, ugliness, and disorder.
Similar to Austria, only in the last 30 years or so of the 1900s has the meaning of industrial heritage been fully recognized in the United Kingdom and its values of cultural resource popularized and priced (Orange, 2008). One of the first books in this field is by Buchanan (1972).
To end this chapter on a lighter note, the growing awareness of industrial redevelopment among the general public is reflected in the large number of comics and cartoons on this subject (Fig. 1.10). To this end, the interested reader can consult https://www.cartoonstock.com/, https://mchumor.com/, etc. and use search words.
Fig. 1.10 Self-explanatory cartoon, which symbolizes the logistic, financial, and cultural limitations to industrial redevelopment. Credit to Theresa McCracken https://mchumor.com/.
A lot of factors enhancing or militating against preservation and reuse of industrial sites, either nuclear or nonnuclear, will be presented in this book, and it will be clear that there are common bases for dealing with any kind of industrial sites.
Disclaimer
Websites accessed on 29 December 2018.
References
Arch Daily. Modern Building Types That Will Soon Disappear Forever. 2018. 4 July 2018 https://www.archdaily.com/896553/6-modern-building-types-that-will-soon-disappear-forever?utm_medium=email&utm_source=ArchDaily%20List&kth=2,750,010.
BBC News. Approval sought for Dounreay dome demolition. 2017. 14
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