Imagining Asia in the Americas

Imagining Asia in the Americas

Asian American Studies Today

This series publishes scholarship on cutting-edge themes and issues, including broadly based histories of both long-standing and more recent immigrant populations; focused investigations of ethnic enclaves and understudied subgroups; and examinations of relationships among various cultural, regional, and socioeconomic communities. Of particular interest are subject areas in need of further critical inquiry, including transnationalism, globalization, homeland polity, and other pertinent topics.

Series Editor: Huping Ling, Truman State University

Stephanie Hinnershitz, Race, Religion, and Civil Rights: Asian Students on the West Coast, 1900–1968

Jennifer Ann Ho, Racial Ambiguity in Asian American Culture

Haiming Liu, From Canton Restaurant to Panda Express: A History of Chinese Food in the United States

Jun Okada, Making Asian American Film and Video: History, Institutions, Movements

Kim Park Nelson, Invisible Asians: Korean American Adoptees, Asian American Experiences, and Racial Exceptionalism

Zelideth María Rivas and Debbie Lee-DiStefano, eds., Imagining Asia in the Americas

David S. Roh, Betsy Huang, and Greta A. Niu, eds., Techno-Orientalism: Imagining Asia in Speculative Fiction, History, and Media

Imagining Asia in the Americas

Edited byZelideth María Rivas and Debbie Lee-DiStefano

Rutgers University Press

New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Rivas, Zelideth María, 1979– | Lee-DiStefano, Debbie.

Title: Imagining Asia in the Americas / edited by Zelideth María Rivas and Debbie Lee-DiStefano.

Description: New Brunswick, New Jersey : Rutgers University Press, 2016. | Series: Asian American studies today | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015047307| ISBN 9780813585215 (hardcover : alkaline paper) | ISBN 9780813585208 (paperback : alkaline paper) | ISBN 9780813585222 (ePub) | ISBN 9780813585239 (Web PDF)

Subjects: LCSH: Asia—Relations—America. | America—Relations—Asia. | Asia—Foreign public opinion, American. | Asia—Foreign public opinion, Caribbean. | Asia—Foreign public opinion, Latin American. | Public opinion—America. | Asians—America—Social conditions. | Immigrants—America—Social conditions. | Transnationalism—Social aspects—America. | Community life—America.

Classification: LCC DS33.4.A45 I47 2016 | DDC 303.48/25097—dc23

LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015047307

A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

This collection copyright © 2016 by Rutgers, The State University

Individual chapters copyright © 2016 in the names of their authors

All rights reserved

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Debbie Lee-DiStefano

Part I

Encounters: Moving Past Encounters: People of Asian Descent in the Americas

Kathleen López

Chapter 1. Yellow Blindness in a Black-and-White Ethnoscape: Chinese Influence and Heritage in Afro-Cuban Religiosity

Martin A. Tsang

Chapter 2. Disrupting the White Myth: Korean Immigration to Buenos Aires and National Imaginaries

Junyoung Verónica Kim

Chapter 3. Harnessing the Dragon: Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurs in Mexico and Cuba

Adrian H. Hearn

Part II

Historicities: Interlude

Kathleen López

Chapter 4. Caught between Crime and Disease: Chinese Exclusion and Immigration Restrictions in Early Twentieth-Century Cuba

José Amador

Chapter 5. The Politics of the Pipe: Opium Regulation and Protocolonial Governance in Nineteenth-Century Hawai‘i

Julia Katz

Part III

Lives/Representations: Interlude

Kathleen López

Chapter 6. Musings on Identity and Transgenerational Experiences

Ann Kaneko

Chapter 7. Intersecting Words: Haiku in Gujarati

Roshni Rustomji-Kerns

Chapter 8. Cultural Celebration, Historical Memory, and Claim to Place in Júlio Miyazawa’s Yawara! A Travessia Nihondin-Brasil and Uma Rosa para Yumi

Ignacio López-Calvo

Bibliography

Notes on Contributors

Index

Acknowledgments

On November 4, 2011, we sat at a pho restaurant after a conference with Roshni Rustomji-Kerns and Alejandro Lee, lamenting the fact that our panels on Asians in Latin America were sparsely attended. Instead of feeling discouraged, we thought how wonderful it would be to host our own conference that highlighted the intersections of Asian, Latin American, and Asian American Studies. In 2012, under Debbie’s guidance, Southeast Missouri State University hosted the first symposium of Asians in the Americas with Karen Tei Yamashita as the keynote speaker. The symposium continued the next year in 2013 at Pepperdine University with David Simonowitz as the organizer and Ann Kaneko as the keynote speaker. In 2014, the symposium grew larger, coming to Rutgers University through Kathleen López featuring Curtis Chin, Konrad Aderer, Lisa Yun, and Gaiutra Bahadur. Finally, in 2015, the symposium was held at La Salle University through the organization of Luisa Ossa with a guest lecture by Melanie Herzog. These symposia would not have been possible without the co-organizers Alejandro Lee, Rick H. Lee, Mey-Yen Moriuchi, Hsiao-Ping Hu Biehl, and Tara Carr-Lemke. This volume emerged from these four symposia.

The editors would like to thank all the participants in these four symposia for contributing to the volume through thoughtful questions and comments after each presentation: Alejandro Lee, Junyoung Verónica Kim, Roshni Rustomji-Kerns, Ann Kaneko, León Chang Shik, Saskia Hertlein, Philip Anthony Ramirez, David Simonowitz, Juan Ishikawa, Chisu Teresa Ko, Jennifer Bengston, Martín Valadez, Anne-Marie Lee-Loy, Justina Hwang, Jungwon Park, Koichi Hagimoto, Anjoli Roy, Colin Root, Danielle Seid, Hailing Guan, Guneeta Bhalla, Kathleen López, Swati Rana, Sandra So Hee Chi Kim, James Ong, George Carlsen, Alan Tollefson, Benjamín Narváez, Julia Katz, Tao Leigh Goffe, Yeon-Soo Kim, Roanne Kantor, Anita Baksh, Kavitha Ramsamy, K. Kale Yu, Apoorva Jadhav, Sayu Bhojwani, Ana Paulina Lee, Augusto Espiritu, Maria Tham, Eric Hung, Fredy González, Elliott Young, Erika Lee, Allison E. White, Malathi M. Iyengar, Jessica M. Falcone, Nicholas Birns, Ana Maria Candela, Rosanne Sia, Lisa Yun, Andre K. Deckrow, Hsiao-Ping Hu Biehl, Jiahong Wang, Christina Lee, Mey-Yen Moriuchi, Dennis Carr, Lesley Shipley, Luisa Ossa, and Elena Valdez.

Lastly, this volume would not have been possible without the support and contributions of many people. Dania Abreu-Torres, Michelle Nasser, Bridget Christine Arce, and Kathleen López read proposal drafts. Zack Rakes tirelessly worked on the volume’s bibliography. Charles DiStefano helped format figures. Marshall University College of Liberal Arts Dean Robert Bookwalter and Southeast Missouri State University Dean Francisco Barrios and Chair of the Department of Global Cultures and Languages Dr. Toni Alexander generously provided funding for permissions. And, finally, we would like to thank our families who supported us through symposia planning, hosting, and travel, all of which made this edited volume possible.

Introduction

Debbie Lee-DiStefano

In 1999, Roshni Rustomji-Kerns, along with her coeditors Rajini Srikanth and Leny Mendoza Strobel, published an anthology that would interpolate onto the academic world a seemingly incongruent topic: Asians in the Americas. Indeed, the anthology Encounters: People of Asian Descent in the Americas brought not a collection of scholarly essays professing to delve into the many facets of what it means to be Asian in the Americas; instead it brought the lives, stories, poems, voices, and memories of citizens of this hemisphere from every Asiatic background and ethnic combination imaginable. It offered the world a glimpse into the complexities that migration, immigration, nation-state, citizenry, diaspora, transnational and geopolitical policies play in the day-to-day lives of people of Asian descent who have connections to this American hemisphere.

Roshni, by her own admission in the anthology, was looking to answer questions particularly regarding how different people from Asia in different areas of the Americas (from different classes, genders, generations, length of residence in the Americas, place of birth, and similar factors) define Asia for themselves and for the communities they live in, and how they describe their connections or lack of connections to Asia, and recognize their own roles and the role of Asia in the Americas.¹ She was striving to uncover the negotiating and renegotiating of relationships, spaces, and places.² This anthology differed from previous research because it brought to the academic forefront the lives of everyday people who were experiencing what it meant to be Asian in the Americas. Roshni points to the necessity to hear such experiences by stating that the multiple, often fluid and overlapping locations that appear . . . involve families, communities, countries, and the imagination.³ The anthology achieved what the traditional scholarly approach could not: it humanized the subjects and gave voice to the everyday people whose everyday lives are affected by the fact that they are of Asian descent and reside somewhere in the Americas. The emotion presented to the reader is palpable, the questions of identity very real and poignant. The reader is removed from the realm of theory and possibilities and placed squarely in front of the reality of subjects who are simply striving to understand their place in this hemisphere.

There are many questions one must attempt to answer when engaging with this topic, the first of which is: Who is Asian in the Americas and what does that mean exactly? These seemingly simple, straightforward questions bring to the forefront some concerns that speak to the historical challenges one faces when traditional bodies of knowledge are confronted with reality, particularly in regards to the definitions of America and Asia and how those terms have been historically juxtaposed and united. To begin, the inclusion of the entire hemisphere or America as a single entity is oftentimes seen as problematic. The desire to separate the United States from every other context is based on many factors that have imbued in them centuries of United States’ dominance in the hemisphere as well as the boundaries of nation, language, and culture; these factors, while purported to be inherent, are indeed manmade constructs that are remnants of colonial and neocolonial dominance. The idea of Asia is equally problematic given that Asia is not an enclosed space with a singular cultural identity. It holds within its somewhat fluid borders a multiplicity of ethnicities, languages, cultures, and histories that also bear the mark of thousands of years of colonial intrusion.

To be sure, Asian immigration, not counting the original migration across the Bering Strait millennia ago, has been a constant since the time of Columbus, which is where the point of juncture begins and we employ the term America coined by Américo Vespucci. Indeed, the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565–1815) initiated contact and exchanges between Asia and Latin America that would be constant into the modern day. And yet, there are issues that arise when Asian and American are employed together. The referent seems to refer historically to the US context, whereas in reality, Asian immigrants settled throughout the entire hemisphere, primarily in the Caribbean and South America, long before there was a significant Asian presence in the United States. However, the terms are perceived as referring to the US English-speaking context, separating it from the English-, Spanish-, or Portuguese-speaking experiences south of the United States. A further complication is that the field of Latin American studies has also overlooked the Asian presence. Traditionally the Latin American ethnic landscape has been comprised of Africans, Amerindians, and Europeans. Their histories have dominated when questions arise regarding ethnicity and its role in the inclusion or exclusion of groups in national processes, nationhood, and citizenry. Indeed, people of varying Asian descents have remained a footnote in the annals of history, regardless of the fact they have been prominent citizens (writers, painters, presidents, philosophers, etc.) and have contributed greatly to the shaping of the ethnic, cultural, and political trajectories in the Americas.

Many scholars both before and after Encounters have dedicated their academic careers to bringing to light the hidden or eclipsed past of Asians of varying descents in the Americas. Evelyn Hu-DeHart, Lane Ryo Hirabayashi, Gary Okihiro, Jeffrey Lesser, Kathleen López, and Ignacio López-Calvo are but a few who have sought to undo this exclusion.⁴ Their numerous monographs and articles openly interrogate the histories, cultures, literatures, and national discourses of countries from both Americas. Hu-DeHart’s groundbreaking research regarding the Chinese coolie trade interjected into Latin American studies the Chinese element, noting with great care and precision the history and contributions of the Chinese who, like their counterparts in the United States, were a driving force behind the development of their communities. Lesser’s research had the same effect by bringing in the Japanese element, particularly in the case of Brazil. Ignacio López-Calvo’s most recent publications explore the literary representations of identity of Peruvians of Chinese and Japanese descent. Numerous scholars have continued the project that scholars such as these started so many years ago. The field expands as scholars begin to theoretically engage the terminology and the systems of power that lie at the heart of these erasures.

In order to adjust the histories so that they are more inclusive, it is necessary to look beyond the traditional methods that separate the continents and approach them as a single entity in exchange for a comparative approach that allows for individual histories to exist alongside a more comprehensive look at the systems that keep people of Asian descent on the peripheries and in the shadows of national inclusion. One need only to remember Benedict Anderson’s pivotal text Imagined Communities to realize that imagined communities are abundant in both the center and the margin.⁵ While the individual communities envision themselves in the greater context of belonging to their respective nations, the power of hegemony removes this option from them. Asian immigrants, regardless of their longevity, permanence, or contributions, are often placed in the category of perpetual foreigner. This removal is twofold when their histories are erased or eclipsed because they are not from the United States.

An approach that focuses on comparisons and intersections of experiences acknowledges that the process of exclusion is the same in the contexts of both North and South America. One can learn from and advance the understanding of these processes by looking at the experiences of Asians in the Americas, from Alaska to Patagonia. Indeed, many scholars in diaspora studies agree that this approach would be very worthwhile. Sukanya Banerjee in the collection New Routes in Diaspora Studies proposes a very similar approach by stating, "It is imperative that we braid together a study of diaspora that remains sensitive to the multiplicity of global histories and movements, with an examination of the evolving incarnations of diaspora and awareness of the concerns and filters that must attend its study."⁶ Banerjee also contends that this will require the inclusion of several disciplines: And a significant part of the scholarly responsibility in ‘routing’ diasporas lies in the entwining—routing together—of different disciplinary approaches in ways that yield new possibilities of analysis while remaining sensitive . . . to diaspora as experience, practice, analytical category, and metaphor.⁷ Finally, Banerjee cautions the scholar by warning that focusing on the diasporic experience as a singular isolated entity with particular dynamics can trap the investigation: By identifying complex configurations and hybrid networks as elements of a particular diaspora, we run the risk of reifying the relationship between those elements and their purported ‘home’ or ‘point of origin.’⁸ This comparative approach lessens the rigidity that has been created by the separations discussed earlier and provides a space for meaningful dialogue regarding experiences across cultural/linguistic/national borders.

The experiences of diaspora and that of the transnational, while not always viewed as the same, are quite similar. Both involve migration and entry into a receiving country/culture that is most probably quite dissimilar to their own. However, academic definitions and approaches tend to be slow in adjusting to the complex structures that are being created in our ever-increasing global society. May Friedman and Silvia Schultermandl express this same concern in Growing Up Transnational: Identity and Kinship in a Global Era. They state that the contemporary globalization has rendered a presumption of fixity an antiquated and outmoded line of enquiry.⁹ Migration in the twenty-first century bears little resemblance to that a century ago. Questions of time and space have changed drastically when one considers that the various waves of migration emerge from differing temporal and geographic points of intersection. As Kim Butler states:

Diversity within diasporas is often posited geo-historically, because dispersed communities have resettled and followed distinct, yet interlinked trajectories. In other words, we think of the constituent segments of a diaspora as location A, B, C, and so on. While this is an appropriate mapping approach for certain research questions, it does not capture the complexity of overlapping waves of diaspora arrivals or remigrations that bring branches of the diaspora together in one location.¹⁰

This complex nature requires that we add a comparative element to our research when we are discussing the experiences of the transnational, primarily when engaging in questions of identity, nation, citizenship, alienation, and marginalization. It is no longer a question of point A to point B but rather a plethora of journeys that cross and intertwine never before considered fixed borders, ethnic identities, and national affiliations, linking them together in ever-increasingly interesting combinations. By comparing experiences one can begin to examine the systems that work against the transnationals and diasporic subjects as they negotiate ideas of national inclusion and strive to see themselves represented in their new home. Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnick in the introduction to Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders and Gender remark:

[W]e must also look at the center/margin, those with access to the state and legal rights and protections and those who don’t. We also have what they call commuters, those who go back and forth, building ties to more than one place. Migrations are about immigrants and emigrants. Citizenship is a legal, a cultural, and an economic relationship, official recognition of a relationship between the individual and the state.¹¹

It is this very relationship that begs for a comparative approach. The multiplicity of connections that are common these days render many approaches difficult or impossible. Groupings by any dichotomies become problematic because they exclude mention of the experiences of other groupings. How can Japanese Americans from the United States and their experiences with the state and inclusion in the national framework differ from Chinese Americans from the United States or Peru or Cuba? How can those of South Asians in the Bahamas be that different from those of Lebanese Americans in the United States? In short, if the goal is to explore, expose, and expel processes that exclude people of Asian descent from full participation and enfranchisement in their respective American communities, a comparative approach is better suited and more effective. It reveals the systemic nature of hegemony, regardless of border, language, and culture, and the abuse it has caused and continues to perpetrate on Asians in this hemisphere. The encounters, to use Roshni’s term, are what matters and where we learn the realities that have been created by age-old processes that hark back to colonialism. The encounters between subject and system are where meaning can be unraveled and reconstituted to represent the totality of the society in which these subjects reside. The idea is not to forget individual histories nor stop researching them; it is a call to see the totality of a whole constituted by these many parts, a puzzle that we painstakingly put together.

Let us fast forward to 2012. Debbie Lee-DiStefano, with financial support from Southeast Missouri State University, hosted the first Asians in the Americas Symposium. The goal of the symposium was to encourage this comparative approach, to bring together scholars whose primary research was any aspect of Asians in the Americas; the plenary topics ranged from socio-historical perspectives to literary analyses to theoretical queries regarding how this field was similar to and different from other academic topics regarding the idea of Asia and America. The symposium’s resounding success engendered three future symposia, hosted by David Simonowitz at Pepperdine University in 2013, Kathleen López at Rutgers University in 2014, and Luisa Ossa at LaSalle University in 2015. Each year brought more plenary speakers and expanded the discussion regarding the complexities of how Asia and America are a synergetic duo that has created transnational migration and subsequent generations whose identities are oftentimes caught in limbo.

The essays in this collection are representative of the ideas brought forward at the symposia. The papers are grouped by topic, accompanied by introductions in which Kathleen López makes expert observations regarding the historical, artistic, and social significance of each topic. She guides the collection through what we call the "post Encounters phase. She demonstrates how the phrase Asians in the Americas" takes on new dimensions as each author’s approach reveals yet another aspect of the condition of what it means to be Asian and American. The reader will realize that perhaps the definition that s/he started with will be challenged on occasion. Western discourse and learning models have dictated to us certain bodies of knowledge that this collection will challenge. This collection is not expected to be a complete body of literature regarding the Asian American experience. Rather, it serves as an academic testament to the many people whose identities, realities, literatures, and histories have not been given a voice; the hope is that this collection serves as an impetus to continue the discussion. Decades after the publication of Encounters we are still encountering and still moving forward, uncovering, unearthing the past with the hopes of establishing an equal presence for Asians in the Americas.

Notes

1. Roshni Rustomji-Kerns, Rajini Srikanth, and Leny Mendoza Strobel, eds., Encounters: People of Asian Descent in the Americas (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), xvi–xvii.

2. Ibid., 7.

3. Ibid.

4. For examples, see Evelyn Hu-DeHart, Across the Pacific: Asian Americans and Globalization (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Lane Ryo Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi, eds., New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002); Lane Ryo Hirabayashi, The Politics of Fieldwork: Research in an American Concentration Camp (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999); Gary Y. Okihiro, Common Ground: Reimagining American History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Gary Y Ohikiro, Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii, 1865–1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991); Gary Y. Okihiro, Pineapple Culture: A History of the Tropical and Temperate Zones (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Jeffrey Lesser, Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999); Jeffrey Lesser, A Discontented Diaspora: Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy, 1960–1980 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007); Jeffrey Lesser, ed., Searching for Home Abroad: Japanese Brazilians and Transnationalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003); Kathleen López, Chinese Cubans: A Transnational History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Ignacio López-Calvo, ed., Peripheral Transmodernities: South-to-South Intercultural Dialogues between the Luso-Hispanic World and ‘The Orient’ (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2012); Ignacio López-Calvo, ed., Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2007); Ignacio López-Calvo, Imagining the Chinese in Cuban Literature and Culture (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008); and Ignacio López-Calvo, The Affinity of the Eye: Writing Nikkei in Peru (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013).

5. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991).

6. Sukanya Bannerjee, Aims McGuinness, and Steven C. McKay, eds., New Routes for Diaspora Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012), 3.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., 9.

9. May Friedman and Silvia Schultermandl, ed. Growing Up Transnational: Identity and Kinship in a Global Era (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011).

10. Kim Butler, Multilayered Politics in the African Diaspora: The Metadiaspora and the Minidiaspora Realities, in Opportunity Structures in Diaspora Relations: Comparisons in Contemporary Multilevel Politics of Diaspora and Transnational Identity, ed. Gloria Totoricagüena (Reno, Nev.: Center for Basque Studies, 2007), 22.

11. Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnick, Introduction: Citizenship and Migration Theory Engendered, in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, ed. Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnick (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 2.

Part I

Encounters

Moving Past Encounters: People of Asian Descent in the Americas

Kathleen López

The contributors to the anthology Encounters (1999) charted new territory through their exploration of Asians in the hemisphere coming into contact and conflict with, intertwining with, and leaving an imprint upon multicultural and multiethnic societies. A generation later, in-depth ethnographic case studies from Cuba, Mexico, and Argentina move beyond an exploration of encounters to theorize what the presence of Asians in the Americas means for the construction of individual and collective identities and developments in global economies and geopolitical alignment. They offer new methodologies and approaches to archival sources and invite us to move beyond national narratives based on race, ethnicity, and culture that portray Asians as insular and beyond inclusion.

While we know much about the economic and political aspects of the nineteenth-century system of Indian and Chinese indentured labor in the British, Spanish, French, and Dutch colonies, less visible are the experiences of Asians as they moved off plantations and intermixed with local populations. Reflecting on the experiences of people of African descent alongside people of Asian descent captures important points of contact and conflict within overlapping diasporic frames. Like African slaves, Asian indentured laborers protested the labor regime through resistance and rebellion, the legal system, interracial alliances, religious practices, and ethnic associations. In Cuba, where Chinese indentured labor was firmly entrenched within a plantation society based on African slavery, the paper trail diminishes as coolies and slaves moved out of bondage and off plantations. The historical archive of the Spanish colonial state often leads to silences regarding the interior lives of the formerly enslaved.

Martin A. Tsang confronts these silences head-on to examine Afro-Asian interactions in the social and spiritual realms in Cuba from the colonial period to the present day. He turns to performance and oral tradition to uncover a distinct Afro-Chinese religious practice within the Lukumi religion, which is usually categorized as Afro-Cuban—a designation of syncretism that subsumes and obscures a Chinese influence dating back to the nineteenth century. Although often small-scale and hidden