Gum Arabic: Structure, Properties, Application and Economics

Gum Arabic

Structure, Properties, Application and Economics

Edited by

Abdalbasit Adam Mariod

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

1: Acacia Seyal Gums in Sudan: Ecology and Economic Contribution

Abstract

Introduction

Acacia seyal tree

Acacia seyal distribution

Acacia seyal ecology

Acacia seyal husbandry

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis for acacia gum in Sudan

Acacia seyal contribution to production and export of gum Arabic

General discussion and recommendations

2: Management Practices of Gum Arabic–Producing Trees

Abstract

Introduction

The importance of gum Arabic–producing trees

Gum Arabic production

Land tenure and management practices

Limitations to management practices

Conclusion

3: Valuation of the Environmental Role of Acacia senegal Tree in the Gum Belt of Kordofan and the Blue Nile Sectors, Sudan

Abstract

Introduction

The study area description

Methodology of the study

Results and discussion

4: Impact of Vegetation Cover Changes on Gum Arabic Production Using Remote Sensing Applications in Gedarif State, Sudan

Abstract

Applications of remote sensing on vegetation cover changes in arid regions

Demographical features of Gadarif state

Gum Arabic Belt in Sudan and its economic importance

Impact of vegetation cover changes in the Gum Arabic Belt in Gadarif state

Remote sensing tools used

Results and discussion

5: Gum Arabic: Certification and Assessment of Marketing Opportunities

Abstract

Introduction

Gum Arabic production policies

The role of stakeholders involved in gum Arabic business

Trading channels

International factors

Definitions of certification

Definition of nontimber forest products

Certification systems for NTFPs

Forest (timberland) Stewardship Council principles

Organic agriculture

Fair trade: Fairtrade Labeling Organizations International

Current situation of gum Arabic business in Umm Ruwaba and El Rahad, Sudan production

Cost of certification

Challenges of gum Arabic certification

The opportunities

Conclusions

6: Chemical Properties of Gum Arabic

Abstract

Introduction

Chemical composition of gum Arabic

Moisture

Ash

Nitrogen and protein content

Amino acid composition

Acidity and pH

Solubility

Equivalent weight, molecular weight, and uronic acid

Reducing sugars

Mineral composition

Minor components of Acacia gums

7: Physical and Electrical Properties of Gum Arabic

Abstract

List of abbreviations

Introduction

Gum Arabic structure

Chemical and physical properties of gum Arabic

8: Analytical Techniques for New Trends in Gum Arabic (GA) Research

Abstract

Introduction

Chromatographic techniques

Mechanical stability

Determining the organic elements

Disintegration studies

Determining viscosity (η)

Thermogravimetric analysis

Differential scanning calorimeter

Infrared spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (H NMR)

Optical activity

Electric conductivity (Λ)

Determining dielectric relaxation (ε)

9: Gravimetric and Calorimetric Analysis of Some Sudanese Acacia Exudate Gums

Abstract

Introduction

Classification and botanical description of the investigated samples

Results and discussion

Differential scanning calorimeter analysis

Elemental analysis results

Acknowledgments

10: Processing of a Highly Purified Grade of Gum Arabic From Gum Dust

Abstract

Introduction

Material and methods

Results and discussion

Conclusion

11: Processing and Modification of Gum Arabic in Specific Applications

Abstract

Introduction

Compositing and blending

Protein polysaccharide emulsions and polyelectrolytes formation

Cross-linking of gum Arabic with other polymers

Chemical modification with octenyl succinic anhydride for improved emulsification

Microencapsulation using gum Arabic

Electrospinning of gum Arabic

Nanosizing using gum Arabic

Drying and molding

Conclusion

12: Enhancement of Color Stability in Foods by Gum Arabic

Abstract

Introduction

Chemistry

Food uses

Gum Arabic as food color preserver

Conclusion

13: Gum Arabic as Thickener and Stabilizing Agents in Dairy Products

Abstract

Introduction

Mechanism of food stabilizers

Gum Arabic

Gum Arabic in dairy production

Use of gum Arabic in other food industries

The legal requirements for gum Arabic

14: Effect of Gum Arabic (Prebiotic) on Physicochemical and Organoleptic Properties of Yogurt (Probiotic)

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Results and discussion

15: Extending Cloud Stability of Tamarindus indica L. Juice Using Sodium Alginate and Gum Arabic During Storage in the Refrigerator

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Results and discussion

16: Health Benefits of Gum Arabic and Medical Use

Abstract

Introduction

History of gum Arabic

Chemistry of gum Arabic

Absorption and metabolism of gum Arabic

Potential health benefits of gum Arabic

Antiobesity effect of gum Arabic

The effects of gum Arabic on food intake

The effects of gum Arabic on serum lipid profiles

Gum Arabic and lipid metabolism gene

Protective effect of gum Arabic for type 2 diabetes mellitus complications

Antioxidant activity of gum Arabic

Hepatoprotective effect of gum Arabic

Nephroprotective effect of gum Arabic

Antiulcer activity of gum Arabic

Effects of gum Arabic on wound healing

Reproductive function improvement from gum Arabic

Immunomodulatory effect of gum Arabic

Antibacterial activity of gum Arabic

Antimalarial effect of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic and sickle cell anemia

Prebiotic properties of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic electrolyte and water absorption

Gum Arabic and cancer

Gum Arabic and cosmetics

Gum Arabic and inks

Toxicological effects of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic interactions with other medication

List of abbreviations

17: Gum Arabic Beneficial Effects, Clinical Applications, and Future Prospective

Abstract

Introduction

Gum Arabic chemical structure

Health benefits of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic as prebiotic

Gum Arabic and butyrate

Gum Arabic effect on renal functions

Gum Arabic effect on gastrointestinal tract

Gum Arabic effect on lipid profile and blood pressure

Gum Arabic effects on blood glucose concentration and body mass

Gum Arabic immune-modulatory and antiinflammatory properties

Gum Arabic as antioxidant agent

Gum Arabic hematological effect

Gum Arabic anticancer properties

Gum Arabic and erythropoietin

List of abbreviations

18: Use of Acacia Gum in the Treatment of Skin Lesions of Two Children With Kwashiorkor

Abstract

List of abbreviations

Introduction

History and origins of gum Arabic

Uses of acacia gum

Discussion

19: Extraction and Utilization of Sudanese Acacia Senegale Seeds (Gum Arabic) Oil for Biodiesel Production in Sudan

Abstract

Introduction

Results and discussion

Conclusion

20: Gum Arabic Dietary Fiber

Abstract

Introduction

Gum Arabic chemical composition and physical properties

Importance and sources of dietary fiber

Gum Arabic dietary fiber

Prebiotic gum Arabic

Food applications

Regulatory aspects of gum Arabic dietary fiber

21: Gum Arabic and Kidney Failure: An Exceptional Panacea

Abstract

Introduction

Gum Arabic as a global commodity

Health benefits and welcome scenarios of gum Arabic

Panacea of gum Arabic: The medical dimensions of gum Arabic

Manipulated dietary fiber

Dietary fiber and renal disease

Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal ) as a source of useful dietary fiber

Gum Arabic and renal function

Role of gum Arabic in renal disease

Herbal therapy medicine and hemodialysis

22: Dietary Gum Arabic as Animal Feed Additive

Abstract

Introduction

Chemical composition and biochemical properties of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic as dietary fibers

Effect of gum Arabic on serum cholesterol level

Effect of gum Arabic on growth performance

Conclusion

23: Applications of Gum Arabic in Medical and Health Benefits

Abstract

Introduction

Antioxidants

Hypolipidemic and antidiabetic

Blood pressure and cholesterol

Antibacterial activity

Antiparasitic (antimalarial)

Renal and extra-renal effects

Intestinal transport effect

Antiinflammatory responses

Anticarcinogenic effect

Dental effect

Effect on sore throat

Boosting the immunity

Prebiotic

Effects on body mass index

Side effects

24: Functional Properties of Gum Arabic

Abstract

Introduction

Gum Arabic chemical structure

Functional properties

Water-holding capacity

Encapsulating agent

Adsorption isotherms

Viscosity

Rheological behavior

Stabilization

Antioxidant properties

25: Effect of Gum Arabic on the Fecal Bacterial Mass in Healthy Human Volunteers

Abstract

Introduction

Medicinal uses

Metabolic products of gum Arabic

Gum Arabic and intestinal tract bacteria

Gum Arabic and stool weight

26: Gastroprotective Activity of Gum Arabic: A Review

Abstract

Introduction

Gastroprotective activity of gum Arabic against insults

Toxicity of gum Arabic

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Nawal Abdel-Gayoum Abdel-Rahman,     National Food Research Centre, Khartoum North, Sudan

Hassan H. Abuelhassan,     Al Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan

Sara A. Ahmed,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum North, Sudan

Abdelkareem A. Ahmed,     University of Nyala, Nyala, Sudan

Rasheeda Hamid Abdallah Ahmed,     Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Insaf Abdel Karim Elhag Ali,     King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia

Yousef A. Alsabah

Al Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan;

Hajjah University, Hajjah, Yemen

Abdelaziz E. Atabani,     Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

Mahiran Basri,     University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

B.I. Beelly Osman,     Blue Nile University, Sudan

Taisser H.H. Deafalla,     Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, TU Dresden, Germany

Hatim M.A. Elamin,     Institute of Gum Arabic Research & Desertification Studies, University of Kordofan, Sudan

Abdelrahman A. Elbadawi

Al Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan

Future University, Khartoum, Sudan

Abdel Moneim El-Hadi Sulieman,     University of Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Khalid H. El-Hag,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Elhadi M.I. Elzain

Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Kordofan University, Elobeid, Sudan

Abdelaziz A. Fadlelmoula

University of Jeddah, Alkamel, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

University of Khartoum, Shambat, Sudan

Hanan S. Fagury,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Abdul Rahman FarajAllah,     Batterjee Medical College of Science & Technology, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Imad Fdl-Elmula,     Assafa Academy, Khartoum, Sudan

Mai Ahmed Hamed,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Zeinab Mohamed Hammad

Institute of Gum Arabic Research and Desertification Studies, University of Kordofan, Sudan

University of Kordofan, Sudan

Elfatih A. Hassan

University of Khartoum

Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

I.A. Mofadel Hassan

Kenana Sugar Company Limited

Khartoum, Sudan

M.A. Hussein,     International University of Africa, Khartoum, Sudan

Inaam Awad Ismail,     National Food Research Centre, Khartoum North, Sudan

Lamis Kaddam,     AlNeelain University, Khartoum, Sudan

Manal A. Kheiry,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum North, Sudan

E.H. Konozy,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

T.E. Mahmoud,     University of Kordofan, Elobeid, Sudan

Abdalbasit A. Mariod

University of Jeddah, Alkamil, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Sudan University of Science & Technology, Shambat, Sudan

Ghibaish College of Science & Technology, Ghibaish, Sudan

Mohamed A. Salih,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Noura Karamalla Mohamed Salih

University of Bahri, Khartoum Bahri, Sudan

Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Hagir Mahagoub El Nasri Mohammed,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

Mohammed Hamed Mohammed,     University of Kordofan, Sudan

Muna Mohamed Mustafa,     National Food Research Centre, Khartoum North, Sudan

Olatunji Ololade,     University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Mohamed E. Osman,     The Gum Arabic Company Ltd, Khartoum, Sudan

Jürgen Pretzsch,     TU Dresden, Germany

A.A. Rabah,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

Osama A. Rayis,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Amal Saeed,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

Suzy Munir Salama,     University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Sulieman Mohamed El Sanousi,     University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

S.S. Awad,     Industrial Research and Consultancy Center, Khartoum, Sudan

Muneer E. Siddig,     Institute of Gum Arabic Research & Desertification Studies, University of Kordofan, Sudan

Mohamed El Nour Taha,     Kordofan University, Sudan

Mohamed A. Talib,     Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

Isam Abu Zeid,     King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Preface

Gum Arabic (GA), or acacia gum, is a tree gum exudate and has been an important part of commerce since ancient times. Traditionally, the gum has been obtained mainly from the Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal species. The trees grow widely across the Sahel belt of Africa situated in the north of the equator up to the Sahara Desert and from Senegal in the west to Somalia in the east.

The backbone of GA is made out of 1,3-linked β-d-galactopyranosyl units. Moisture content of GA falls within the range (13%–15%). The protein content of GA ranges from 1.5% to 3.0% from main principal amino acids. The mineral content of the GA are Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, P, and nondetectable traces of Pb, Co, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cr, and Mn. The variation in chemical composition and properties of GA is mainly due to genotypic differences, age, climatic conditions, soil, and plant pathogens. GA is used as an emulsifier and a thickening agent in foods. It has been applied to relieve the effects of chronic renal failure, and it is a good antioxidant, which protects against cardiac and hepatic toxicities. Although there have been articles in journals and chapters in books that have described some chemistry, structure, and health issues of GA, a book devoted entirely to its structure, chemistry, food and feed applications, and medical and health uses has not previously been available.

This book presents three parts divided into 26 chapters on GA. Part 1 presents an introduction to agriculture and economics of GA and is focused mainly on ecology and economic contribution, management practices, and certification and assessment of marketing opportunities of GA-producing trees. This part is covered by five chapters. Part 2 consists of 10 chapters investigating the chemical, physical, and electronic properties of GA; new trends in GA methods of analysis; thermal characteristics of acacia gum; processing of a highly purified grade of GA from gum dust; processing and modification of GA in specific applications; enhancement of color stability in foods by GA; GA as a thickener and stabilizing agent in dairy products; effects of GA (prebiotic) on physicochemical and organoleptic properties of yogurt (probiotic); and extending cloud stability of juice using GA during storage in the refrigerator. Part 3 describes its health benefits, for example, GA as dietary animal feed, treatment for skin lesions, and dietary fiber in addition to its medical uses, such as treatment against kidney failure and the clinical applications and effect of GA on the fecal bacterial mass on healthy human volunteers. This part contains 11 chapters.

This book has been written to ensure that it will be beneficial to industry, medicine, and food scientists. In addition, the book should be useful to academic scientists who require a good source of applications and references. As gums have diverse uses, it is hoped that the use of the book will not be limited to the food and medicine industry, but will extend to related industries, such as the pharmaceutical industry.

1

Acacia Seyal Gums in Sudan: Ecology and Economic Contribution

S.S. Awad*

A.A. Rabah**

H.I. Ali†

T.E. Mahmoud‡

*    Industrial Research and Consultancy Center, Khartoum, Sudan

**    University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

†    Kenana Sugar Company Limited, Khartoum, Sudan

‡    University of Kordofan, Elobeid, Sudan

Abstract

Historically, Acacia seyal gum in the Sudan ranks as the second most important gum product after Acacia senegal in terms of quantity. It contributed an average of 10% of gum products until 2011, and then the average contribution percentage within the last 4 years (2012–2015) jumped to almost 60%. A. seyal trees’ coverage extend in an area of 36,000 square kilometers (3.6 million ha) in a latitude ranging between 100° and 140°N. The distribution of the A. seyal stand is extensively on the clay soil plains, where average rainfall ranges between 300 and 400 mm. Two infraspecific variants of A. seyal widely distributed in Sudan are separated on the basis of the presence and absence of ant galls and color of the bark. Ant-gall and white-colored bark are the characteristics of the fistula variety, while the bark of the seyal variety is green or red. Despite the significant contribution of A. seyal to the export market in the Sudan, farmers have a slightly poor knowledge of postharvest cultural practices of A. seyal, which include proper methods of storage conditions and gum stacking. Nevertheless, this chapter is trying to review the existing research in the areas of A. seyal ecology, distribution, and pre- and postharvest cultural practices, which include tree husbandry, tapping, gum collection, handling, and storage. Also, physical and chemical properties of A. seyal will be highlighted as well as the contribution of A. seyal gums to the portfolio of exports.

Keywords

Acacia fistula

Acacia seyal

Acacia senegal

characterization

contribution for export portfolio

ecology

Introduction

Acacia gum is a natural agricultural resource from the gum belt region of Africa, i.e., countries geographically ranging from east to west: from Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia to Chad, Central African Republic, Mali, Niger, and farther west up to Nigeria, Senegal, and even Mauritania (Mohammed, 2011). Economically speaking, acacia gum mainly comes from Sudan, Chad, and Nigeria.

In Sudan, the most important of nonwood forest products is gum Arabic, which exudates from Acacia senegal and locally known as hashab, or hard gum, and Acacia seyal, which is known as talha, or friable gum. Both species spread naturally in the central belt of the low-rainfall savannah, where they exist in pure or mixed stands, in the clay plains in the East, and the sandy soils in the West (ElKhawad, 2008).

Despite the significant contribution of A. seyal to the exports market in the Sudan, farmers have a slightly poor knowledge of postharvest cultural practices of A. seyal, which include proper methods of storage conditions and gum stacking. Nevertheless, this chapter is trying to review the existing research in the areas of pre- and postharvest cultural practices, including tree husbandry, tapping, gum collection, handling, and storage. Physical and chemical properties of A. seyal establish a clear protocol of the A. seyal tree in the Sudan.

Acacia seyal tree

A. seyal trees are up to 17 m tall in Sudan, with a flat top crown. They have a distinctive smooth, powdery bark, which varies from white to greenish-yellow or orange-red, with a green layer beneath. In some populations, both red- and yellow-barked trees can be found. There are two varieties, differing primarily in whether pseudo-galls (ant galls) develop and in bark color. In A. seyal var. seyal, there are no pseudo-galls, and a reddish bark color prevails, although periodic bark exfoliation exposes a pale, powdery surface, which darkens slowly. In A. seyal var. fistula, pseudo-galls are present, and the powdery bark typically remains whitish or greenish-yellow.

Acacia seyal distribution

In general, there are two main varieties of A. seyal: variety seyal and variety fistula. Variety seyal is found in both western and eastern Africa and also on the Arabian Peninsula, while variety fistula is found in the eastern parts of Africa; this indicates that variety seyal is native to northern tropical Africa and Egypt. The two varieties can be easily distinguished; variety seyal has a greenish-yellow to reddish-brown bark, while variety fistula has white to greenish-yellow bark. Fig. 1.1 shows the distribution of A. seyal varieties with respect to rainfall. However, seyal trees are naturally grown in the Sudan as long as there has been no reforestation done by humans (Mohammed, 2011).

Figure 1.1   Distribution of Acacia seyal varieties in Africa with respect to rainfall.

Acacia seyal ecology

Location

In Sudan, the clay plain is a vast stretch of flat land extending over the eastern part of the country. The White Nile forms a natural boundary to the west, but south of 13°N, the clay plain protrudes farther westward to enclose South Kordofan. Its northern limit corresponds closely to the upper edge of the Sahel, while the southern limit lies within the Guinean zones (Mustafa, 2006). The central clay plain is situated between latitudes 10 and 16°N and longitudes 32 and 37°E.

Soil

The parent materials of the clay plain soils belong to two broad groups: alluvial, deltaic, and paludal sediments from rivers belonging to the Nile system and colluvial–alluvial deposits derived from local rock weathering (Balal et al., 2014). Soils dry out and crack during the dry months to restore their permeability; they are poor in organic matter and low in alkaline, nitrogen, and phosphorus percentages. Both traditional and mechanized rain-fed agriculture is practiced in this region to grow sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), sesame (Sesamum orientale), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), and cotton (Bombax costatum). The southern part of the clay plain receives heavy rains during the rainy season and hence is inundated for 4 to 6 months. In general, this area is a region of grasses rather than agricultural crops.

Rainfall

The climate is subtropical with arid characteristics. The annual rainfall increases southeastward from 400 mm to 900 mm, and the rainy season lasts from May to October. However, the rainfall is very erratic in amount and space, and frequencies of cessation could prevail for more than 15 days, which has a paramount impact on the plant establishment. This, in view of the low permeability of the clay soil, shortens the period of sufficient soil moisture for the plant to germinate and grow; only those with high efficiency in absorbing moisture would survive (Balal et al., 2014).

Temperature

Sudan's inherent vulnerability may best be captured by the fact that food security is mainly determined by rainfall, particularly in the rural areas where more than 65% of the population lives. Mean annual temperature lies between 26°C and 32°C, but in some places, it reaches 47°C, causing a lot of stresses and heat-related diseases. Mean annual temperature varies from 18 to 28°C (Orwa et al., 2009).

Acacia seyal husbandry

Most of the farmers in the sand plains areas have adequate awareness of pre-harvest cultural practices of A. senegal. This awareness is due to their vast indigenous knowledge of the traditional farming system in addition to the extensive knowledge held by the Forest National Cooperation as a result of a comprehensive research done in the last five decades, which provides a clear protocol for tree husbandry, including tapping of the tree as well as the proper way of collecting gums (Abdel Nour, 1989). However, farmers have a slightly poor knowledge of postharvest cultural practices of A. seyal, which include proper methods of storage conditions and gum stacking. Nevertheless, sufficient research has been done in these fields (Abdel Nour, 1989).

Acacia seyal pre- and postharvest practices

A protocol for a tree of A. seyal is not yet been established, and this is coupled with local farmers’ poor indigenous knowledge in the clay plains regarding tree husbandry, tapping, and gum collection. The results of that are inferior quality and poor nodule physical characteristics (GAB, 2007).

Collectors harvest the partially dried gum, and multiple collections up to three times at 3-week intervals from the same tree are possible. A yield of 300–700 g is obtained per tree annually. On the other hand, A. seyal is generally collected from natural exudation without tapping. In certain gum sources, the natural exudates were noted as being darker in color compared to gums obtained by tapping (Anderson and Bridgeman, 1985). The method of gum production might be one of the factors causing the difference in color between A. senegal and A. seyal. Recently, Fadl and Gebauer (2010) reported that the middle stem tapping caused highest A. seyal gum exudation. A. seyal gum production by tapping might be increased in the future if problems such as serious stress to the tree are avoided (Fadl and Gebauer, 2010). Tapping is often done by using traditional tools, such as the axe, sonki, and makmak, shown in Fig. 1.2. Using the makmak is highly recommended. Fadl reported that Makmak was the best tool for tapping A. seyal. The reason can be seen on the wide edge on the top of the tool, which allows better removal of the bark.

Figure 1.2   Makmak, axe, mohar, and sonkey (from left to right). Source: Fadl, K.E.M., Gebauer, J., 2010. Effect of different tapping tools and different tapping positions on talha gum yield of Acacia seyal var. seyal in South Kordofan Sudan. In: Kennedy, J.F., Phillips, G.O., Williams, P.A. (Eds.), Gum Arabic. RSC Publishing.

Identity and purity of Acacia seyal gum

Chemical and physical properties of gum are considered important characteristics for commerce in order to ensure the identity and purity of gum and to avoid mixing and adulteration. Chikamai et al. (1995) illustrated that they were able to distinguish gums from different Acacia species as well as suspected contaminants. The analytical method enabled them to differentiate between gums on the basis of optical rotation, protein content, and viscosity, which were noted as basic parameters for comparison. The method was able to distinguish gums from the other Acacia species purely on the basis of optical rotation, though information on nitrogen and sugar composition was also invaluable. Other schools of thought believe that the two parameters emphasized, optical rotation and nitrogen content, are too restrictive and can sometimes result in rejecting otherwise authentic gum Arabic if applied and more so when the analytical method is the only one relied upon. Moisture content gives an indicator for both purity and real weight.

Table 1.1 shows A. seyal specifications, whereas Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show the physicochemical properties and cationic composition of A. seyal, respectively. These parameters are clearly specified by JECFA (1990).

Table 1.1

Source: IGADRS, 2015. Production and Value Chain Manual, Institute of Gum Arabic Researches and Desertification Studies (IGARDS).

Table 1.2

Source: Obeid, I.S., 2012. Evaluation of Physicochemical, Microbiological and Toxicological Aspects of Acacia seyal Gum (Ph.D. thesis in Chemistry). Sudan University of Sciences and Technology.

S.O.R., Specific Optical Rotation

Table 1.3

a  Buffo, R.A., Reineccius, G.A., Oehlert, G.W., 2001. Factors affecting the emulsifying and rheological properties of gum Acacia in beverage emulsions. Food Hydrocoll. 15, 53–66.

b  Abdelrahman, M. A. (2008). Characterization and thermodynamic properties of gum of Acacia origin. PhD thesis. Sudan University of Science and Technology, pp. 32, 46–47.

c  Obeid, I.S. 2012. Evaluation of Physicochemical, Microbiological and Toxicological Aspects of Acacia seyal Gum (Ph. D. thesis in Chemistry). Sudan University of Sciences and Technology.

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis for acacia gum in Sudan

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis was realized for the identification of the internal (strengths and weaknesses) and external factors (opportunities, threats), as shown in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4

Acacia seyal contribution to production and export of gum Arabic

The production of gum Arabic from both Acacias (senegal and seyal) in the Sudan from 1980 until 2014 is shown in Fig. 1.3. Gum Arabic (both senegal and seyal) exported from Sudan contributed significantly to the international trade market, as indicated in Fig. 1.3. Besides the significance of gum Arabic's economic role for the country, it plays an important part in rural life, providing a steady income to rural families, especially in dry years when crops fail.

Figure 1.3   Gum Arabic production in MT. Source: Modified from Gum Arabic Co. (GAC); Forest National Corporation (FNC); Gum Arabic Board (GAB) reports.

The estimated trend of gum Arabic production (quantities in metric ton) is given over 34 years, and accordingly, the series of these measurements is treated as time-series data (more than 25 years for the period extended from 1980 to 2014). The trend estimation is used to make and justify tendency in the data by relating the quantities of gum Arabic to the time at which they occurred. The model shows that the quantities exhibit a zigzagging trend, where an increasing and decreasing manner appears several times, which is statistically distinguished from random behavior. The least square fitting (R²) shows the residuals of the data obtained for gum Arabic quantities after fit. The small value of R² indicates that the data response around the mean explains very little variability, as shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4   Gum Arabic export. Source: Modified from Gum Arabic Co. (GAC); Central Bank of Sudan (CBoS); Gum Arabic Board (GAB) reports.

The estimated trend of gum Arabic export (quantities in metric ton) is also given for the 34 years from 1980 to 2014. The model shows that the quantities exhibit an increasing trend over time. The R² indicates that the model explains the 27% variability of the response data around its mean (Table 1.5).

Table 1.5

Source: GAB (2016).

a  Three months.

General discussion and recommendations

Improving quality in fields increases the likelihood of obtaining chemically good gum. Knowledge of seyal quality supplied helps in the process of targeting market niches or reducing the risk of rejection by the buyer.

The good-quality gum on the field increases the likelihood of obtaining good quality on the basis of invisible attributes. Hence, collectors should be sensitized to put effort in the respect of the good harvest and post-harvest practices so that they supply good-quality gum. Trainings for gum collectors should be regularly conducted, as knowledge and awareness creation are probably the main building blocks for quality-oriented production.

The sensitization of collectors should be accompanied by price incentives by which the high quality is rewarded by a quality premium.

The current study has strengthened the need to understand the role of forest (tree and/or land) management on the quality of the gum. Clear rules of management are needed to counteract the influence of market forces (price) on competition in forests. Forest management is also a pertinent issue, as recurrent competitions may be detrimental to the resource and lead to degradation.

There is need for concerted effort towards strengthening the producer associations, construction of storage facilities in strategic locations, capacity building, provision information on prices and markets, and development of marketing systems.

References

Abdel Nour HO. Gum arabic in Sudan: production and socio-economic aspects. FAO Report. 1989 : http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5402e/x5402e12.htm.

Anderson DMW, Bridgeman MME. The composition of the proteinaceous polysaccharides exuded by Astragalus microcephalus, A. Gummifer and A. Kurdicus—the sources of turkish gum tragacanth. Phytochemistry. 1985;24(10):2301–2304.

Balal ME, Salih NKE, Abdel Magid TD. Ethno-botany of natural forests of Nuba Mountains. J. Forest Prod. Ind. 2014;3(1):13–19: South Kordofan State, Sudan. ISSN: 2325–4513. ISSN 2325-453X (online).

Chikamai BN, Osman ME, Menzies AR, Banks WB. An evaluation of methods for characterizing and monitoring gum Arabic of commerce and related Acacia gums. Wood Sci. Technol. 1995;30:49–61.

ElKhawad HE. Gum Arabic processing and marketing in the Sudan. M.Sc. thesis in Chemical Engineering. University of Khartoum; 2008.

Fadl KEM, Gebauer J. Effect of different tapping tools and different tapping positions on talha gum yield of Acacia seyal var. seyal in South Kordofan Sudan. In: Kennedy JF, Phillips GO, Williams PA, eds. Gum Arabic. RSC Publishing; 2010.

GAB, 2007. Gum Arabic Board reports, Khartoum, Sudan.

JECFA Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants (Thirty-fifth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). WHO Technical Report Series, No. 789 and corrigenda. 1990 : http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/jecfa-reports/en/.

Mohammed MH. Management of Natural Stands of Acacia seyal Del. variety seyal (Brenan) for Production of Gum Talha, South Kordofan Sudan. Ph.D. thesis in Forest Growth and Computer Sciences. Technical University of Dresden; 2011.

Mustafa, R., 2006. Risk management in the rain-fed sector of Sudan: a case Study, Gedarif Area Eastern Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences. University of Justus Liebig Qiessen.

Orwa et al.,2009 Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. Agroforestree Database: A Tree Reference and Selection Guide Version 4.0. Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre; 2009.

Further Readings

Awad SS, Rabah AA, Ali HI, Mahmoud TE. Acacia seyal gums in Sudan: a review. In: Proceedings of the 7th Conference of Scientific Research on the Basic and Engineering Sciences; 2016University of Khartoum, Sudan, February 2016. .

Elsiddig TA. Comparative water uptake at germination and early stage of seedling in six provenances of talha (Acacia seyal var. seyal) from Sudan clay plain. M.Sc. Thesis in Environmental Science and Natural Resources. University of Gezira; 2009.

GAB 2015. Gum Arabic Board reports, Khartoum, Sudan.

Hassan EA, Al-Assaf S, Phillips GO, Williams PA. Studies on Acacia gums: Part III molecular weight characteristics of Acacia seyal var. seyal and Acacia seyal var. fistula. Food Hydrocoll. 2005;19:669–677.

Mujawamariya G, Burger K. Quality of gum Arabic in Senegal: linking the laboratory research to the field assessment. Quart. J. Int. Agric. 2012;51(4):357–383.

2

Management Practices of Gum Arabic–Producing Trees

Zeinab Mohamed Hammad***

Mohammed Hamed Mohammed**

*    Institute of Gum Arabic Research and Desertification Studies, University of Kordofan, Sudan

**    University of Kordofan, Elobeid, Sudan

Abstract

This chapter presents an overview and collection of the scant literature on management practices of gum Arabic–producing trees. Issues pertaining to tree requirements, description, and some silvicultural aspects, such as gum tapping and harvesting, have been tackled. A farming system that involves gum-producing trees and other important, relevant aspects, such as land tenure, ownership type, and challenges and limitations that the gum Arabic sector faces, has been undertaken. Special consideration is given to the ecological services of those trees as far as socioeconomic importance other than gum Arabic production is concerned. In conclusion, under prevailing conditions of a deteriorating environment and climate variability, nonmarketable services of gum Arabic–producing trees have to be promoted in the same way as gum Arabic production. This chapter recommends conducting new research strategies that consider sustainable agriculture through the Acacia-based farming system, which guarantees diversification of farm products for income generation, risk minimization, and poverty alleviation.

Keywords

Acacia-based farming

Acacia senegal

Acacia seyal

gum belt

hashab

nonmarketable services

Introduction

Gum Arabic, which has countless applications, is a nontimber forest product of Acacia trees, namely Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal, of the Sudano–Sahelian region of sub-Saharan Africa (JECFA, 1999; Karama, 2002). More than 500 hundred species exist of the genus Acacia that produce natural gums (Beyene, 1993). However, gum from A. senegal and A. seyal is considered to be of high commercial importance. As indicated by Chikamai (1997), gum is an exudate that is obtained naturally from Acacia stands. It is worth mentioning that some species, such as A. senegal, Acacia laeta, Acacia ehrenbergiana, and Acacia karroo, produce plenty of gum through stimulation by tapping. In the arid rural areas of western Sudan, that is, Kordofan and Darfur, production of gum Arabic is behind economic stability. It is a source of income in the agricultural off-season, and most household members are involved in different gum Arabic production activities.

In Sudan, A. senegal, locally known as the hashab tree, is found either in natural stands or in plantations; the gum is attained by tapping, whereas gum from