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Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation
Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation
Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation
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Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

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Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation, Volume 10 in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, provides an understanding of the most common microbial agents involved in food contamination and spoilage, and highlights the main detection techniques to help pinpoint the cause of contamination. Microorganisms may cause health-threatening conditions directly by being ingested together with contaminated food, or indirectly by producing harmful toxins and factors that can cause food borne illness. This resource discusses the potential sources of contamination, the latest advances in contamination research and strategies to prevent contamination using key methods of analysis and evaluation.

  • Presents modern alternatives for avoiding microbial spoilage and food degradation using preventative and intervention technologies
  • Provides key methods for addressing microbial contamination and preventing food borne illness through research and risk assessment analysis
  • Includes detailed information on bacterial contamination problems in different environmental environments and the methodologies to help solve those problems
LanguageEnglish
Release dateNov 3, 2017
ISBN9780128112632
Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

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    Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

    Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

    Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 10

    Edited by

    Alina Maria Holban

    Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

    Table of Contents

    Cover

    Title page

    Copyright

    List of Contributors

    Foreword

    Series Preface

    Preface for Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

    Chapter 1: Food Products and Food Contamination

    Abstract

    1. Food Contamination

    2. Types of Food Contamination

    3. Types of Food

    4. Contaminated Food Products

    5. Entry of Pathogens Into the Food Supply

    6. Summary and Conclusions

    Chapter 2: Microbial Contamination, Prevention, and Early Detection in Food Industry

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Bacterial Contamination in the Food Industry

    3. Fungal Contamination of Food

    4. Precaution Taken by the Food Industry to Prevent Microbial Growth and Contamination

    5. Prevention of Microbial Contamination in Food Industry

    6. Conventional Methods to Detect Food-Borne Pathogens

    7. Rapid Diagnosis of Food Contamination

    8. Conclusions

    Chapter 3: Microbiological Contamination in Foods and Beverages: Consequences and Alternatives in the Era of Microbial Resistance

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Deterioration and Contamination in Food Products

    3. Other Food Products

    4. Development of Microbial Resistant in Food Industry

    5. Control of Pathogen and Spoilage Bacteria in Food Industry

    6. Final Considerations

    Chapter 4: Quorum Sensing as a Mechanism of Microbial Control and Food Safety

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Biofilm Development

    3. Bacterial Communication

    4. QS and Biofilms in Food Safety

    5. Resistance Mechanisms of Biofilms

    6. Quorum Sensing and Its Control

    7. Antiquorum Sensing Compounds Versus Antimicrobials

    8. Future Needs

    Chapter 5: Food Degradation and Foodborne Diseases: A Microbial Approach

    Abstract

    1. Microbial Epidemiology and History at a Glance

    2. Microbial Food Spoilage: A Threat to Public Health

    3. Factors Responsible for Food Degradation

    4. Strategies to Avert Food Degradation

    5. Methods for Identification of Food Degradation

    Chapter 6: Fresh-Cut Fruits: Microbial Degradation and Preservation

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Microbial Degradation of Fresh-Cut Fruits

    3. Methods for Fresh-Cut Fruits Preservation

    4. Modern Techniques

    5. Innovative Techniques

    6. Conclusions

    Chapter 7: Occurrence of Natural Toxins in Seafood

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning

    3. Tetrodotoxin Poisoning

    4. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning

    5. Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning

    6. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning

    7. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning

    8. Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning

    9. Marine Toxins in the Production of Bioactive Compounds

    10. Monitoring of Biotoxins

    11. Impact of Climate on Marine Toxins

    12. Conclusions

    Acknowledgment

    Chapter 8: Biopreservatives as Agents to Prevent Food Spoilage

    Abstract

    1. Biopreservatives

    2. Essential Oils

    3. Bacteriocins and Microorganisms

    4. Enzymes

    5. Final Remarks

    Acknowledgments

    Chapter 9: Wine Microbial Spoilage: Advances in Defects Remediation

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Wine Microbial Spoilage

    3. Current Methods for the Reduction of Volatile Acidity in Wines and Grape Musts

    4. Role of LAB on Wine Safety and Quality

    5. Preventive Treatments to Avoid Brettanomyces sp. Wine Contamination

    6. Reduction of 4-Ethylphenol and 4-Ethylguaiacol Using Fining Agents

    7. Prevention of Biogenic Amines Formation During Winemaking

    8. Ethyl Carbamate Mitigation

    9. Application of Fining Agents to Reduce OTA Concentration from Wine

    10. Final Remarks

    Chapter 10: Near-Infrared Spectral Informative Indicators for Meat and Dairy Products, Bacterial Contamination, and Freshness Evaluation

    Abstract

    1. Principles of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

    2. Application of NIR in Determination of Meat Freshness and Bacterial Contamination

    3. Application of NIR in Meat Quality Identification

    4. Application of NIR for Quantitative Analysis, Bacterial Contamination, and Disease Diagnosis in Dairy Products

    5. Conclusions

    Chapter 11: Use of Bacterial Growth Curve for Assessing Risk of Microbiological Pathogens in Food Products

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Cases Found in a Developing Country Due to the Implementation of the Zero Tolerance Concept

    3. Bacterial Growth Factors and Curve

    4. Application of the Bacterial Exponential Growth Equation for the Microbiological Pathogenic Risk Assessment Model

    5. Development of Food Standard for Pathogen

    6. Application of the Microbiological Pathogenic Risk Assessment Model for Food Standard Establishment

    7. Conclusions

    Chapter 12: Biosensors and Express Control of Bacterial Contamination of Different Environmental Objects

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. The Most Common Foodborne Pathogens

    3. Antibiotic Resistance of Pathogens

    4. Traditional Methods for Microorganism Detection

    5. Biosensors for Detection and Control of Pathogenic Microorganisms

    6. Conclusions

    Acknowledgments

    Chapter 13: Mycotoxins in Foods: Mycotoxicoses, Detection, and Management

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Fungus Associated With Mycotoxin Production

    3. Detection of Mycotoxins in Foods

    4. Management of Mycotoxins

    5. Conclusions

    Chapter 14: Multiple-Locus Variable-Number of Tandem-Repeats Analysis as Subtyping Technique for Food-Borne Pathogens

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. VNTRs Stability

    3. Conclusions

    Chapter 15: Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils in Food Systems—An Overview

    Abstract

    1. Introduction

    2. Spices and Herbs

    3. Essential Oils

    4. Antimicrobial Properties

    5. Antioxidant Properties

    6. Perspectives

    Index

    Copyright

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    Notices

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    ISBN: 978-0-12-811515-2

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    List of Contributors

    Jayanthi Abraham,     VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

    Ananya Acharya,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Luiz A.A. Albino,     Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Brasil

    Ponce G. Alejandra

    National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)

    National University of Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

    Stefka Atanassova,     Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

    Swathy Babu,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Laís S. Batalha,     Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Brasil

    Navneet Batra,     GGDSD College, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Punjab, India

    Delaine M.G. Boggione,     Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Brasil

    Sutapa Bose,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Ana V. Bustamante,     Veterinary Research Center of Tandil (CIVETAN) CONICET-CIC-UNCPBA, National University of Center of Buenos Aires Province, Tandil, Argentina

    Marília G. Cattelan,     São Paulo State University, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

    Ankita Chatterjee,     VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

    Visith Chavasit,     Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

    Fernanda Cosme,     CQ-VR—Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

    Luís Filipe-Ribeiro,     CQ-VR—Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

    Irene R. Freitas,     São Paulo State University, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

    Marco T.P. Gontijo,     Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Brasil

    António Inês,     CQ-VR—Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

    Soumya Jal,     VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

    Katepogu Kamala,     Rayalaseema University, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India

    Bhupendra S. Kharayat,     ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi, India

    Samanta S. Khora,     VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

    Venkobarao Pavan Kumar,     Rayalaseema University, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India

    Aurelio López-Malo,     Universidad de las Americas Puebla, Cholula, Puebla, México

    Maryoris E.S. Lopez,     Universidad de Córdoba, Montería, Colombia

    Arnab Majumdar,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Emma Mani-López,     Universidad de las Americas Puebla, Cholula, Puebla, México

    Regina C.S. Mendonça,     Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Brasil

    Oleksandra Novgorodova,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

    Fernando M. Nunes,     CQ-VR—Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

    Yulia Ogorodnijchuk,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

    Nupur Ojha,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Enrique Palou,     Universidad de las Americas Puebla, Cholula, Puebla, México

    Juntima Photi,     Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

    Neha Pradhan,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Sasiumphai Purttiponthanee,     Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

    Ansorena M. Roberta

    National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)

    National University of Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

    Jibin Sadasivan,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Piyanuch Saekoo,     Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

    A. Mariel Sanso,     Veterinary Research Center of Tandil (CIVETAN) CONICET-CIC-UNCPBA, National University of Center of Buenos Aires Province, Tandil, Argentina

    Abhinashi Singh,     GGDSD College, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Punjab, India

    Yogendra Singh,     College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India

    Nickolaj F. Starodub,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

    Todor Stoyanchev,     Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

    Petya Veleva,     Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

    Alice Vilela,     CQ-VR—Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

    Divya Walia,     GGDSD College, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Punjab, India

    Foreword

    In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

    The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

    The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

    Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

    Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

    Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

    Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

    Bucharest, Romania

    Series Preface

    The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

    Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

    While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

    The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

    Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

    Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

    Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

    Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

    Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

    Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

    Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

    Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

    Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

    Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

    Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

    Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

    Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

    Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

    Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

    Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

    Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

    Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

    Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

    Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

    The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

    All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

    This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

    Alina M. Holban

    University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

    Alexandru M. Grumezescu

    Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

    Preface for Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

    Food contamination represents an important factor in food industry, controlling quality, safety, and economic aspects of any food-related industrial process. Contaminants may be very diverse and are clustered into physical, chemical, and biological agents, depending on the nature of incriminated factors. Biological contaminants are very frequent and their impact on food range from spoilage to food degradation, resulting various unusable and unsafe products. Microorganisms may have numerous beneficial roles in food production and processing, numerous species being utilized to obtain particular products, such as fermented foods. However, some species could cause very important industrial, economic, and medical concerns when they are incriminated for food contamination. Main food microbiological contaminants are bacteria, microfungi, protozoa, and viruses. These microorganisms may cause both food degradation and severe illness in the consumer. Moreover, some microbial species can produce toxic substances into the contaminated food and cause food poisoning or intoxication. Early detection of pathogenic microorganisms and their harmful products, and also food contamination prevention approaches are currently intensively investigated.

    This volume reveals main microbial food contaminants and brings together interesting and updated information regarding innovative techniques for contaminants detection in foods. Recent detection approaches include the development of smart sensors, molecular techniques, and sensitive physico–chemical methods.

    The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from India, Portugal, Ukraine, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and Thailand.

    The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, biochemists, material science researchers, and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation.

    Chapter 1, Food Products and Food Contamination, prepared by Kamala and Kumar, offers an introduction into microbial food contamination, discussing types of contaminants and major risks associated with contaminated foods.

    In Chapter 2, Microbial Contamination, Prevention, and Early Detection in Food Industry, Chatterjee and Abraham describe the main microbial contaminants and their impact on food, highlighting the importance of efficient prevention and early detection methods of microbial contaminants for a sustainable food industry.

    In Chapter 3, Microbiological Contamination in Foods and Beverages: Consequences and Alternatives in the Era of Microbial Resistance, Lopez et al. discuss the biochemistry, nutritional, and sensorial effects caused by the microbial contamination of beverages, dairy, meat and egg products, fruits and vegetables, canned and other packaged foods.

    Chapter 4, Quorum Sensing as a Mechanism of Microbial Control and Food Safety, written by Roberta and Alejandra, describes microbial cell-to-cell communication (suorum sensing) as a potentially very efficient mechanism to control microbial contamination of various materials, including foods. This density-dependent molecular signaling is able to control all virulence and pathogenicity-related aspects in microorganisms.

    Chapter 5, Food Degradation and Foodborne Diseases: A Microbial Approach, prepared by Majumdar et al., explores the diversity of microbes and the underlying processes associated with food degradation and the concomitant health issues, with special emphasis on certain foods, considered more prone to microbial contamination and degradation.

    In Chapter 6, Fresh-Cut Fruits: Microbial Degradation and Preservation, Singh et al. discuss the risks associated with fresh-cut fruit consumption, in terms of contamination and safety. The demand of these products is increasing constantly and therefore the need of new and advanced techniques for fresh-cut fruits preservation has become important. Recent approaches developed to limit contamination in fresh-cut fruits are revealed here.

    Chapter 7, entitled Occurrence of Natural Toxins in Seafood, prepared by Khora and Jal, reveals the seafood intoxication statistics and empathizes the recent developments in the toxicology, pharmacology, and detection and regulations of various seafood toxins research.

    In Chapter 8, Biopreservatives as Agents to Prevent Food Spoilage, Mani-López et al. discuss the most utilized biopreservatives for foods, as well as some potential preservatives, which could be developed and applied in the near future. Their advantages, limitations, and legal status associated to their design and implementation are also described.

    In Chapter 9, Wine Microbial Spoilage: Advances in Defects Remediation, Cosme et al. show the main spoilage microorganisms in wine industry, which include species and strains of yeasts, filamentous fungi, lactic acid bacteria, and acetic acid bacteria. Defects associated with wine microbial spoilage, such as bitterness, off-flavors, and sensorial visual faults (such as film formation, turbidity, viscosity, and sediments) are presented.

    Chapter 10, Near-Infrared Spectral Informative Indicators for Meat and Dairy Products, Bacterial Contamination, and Freshness Evaluation, prepared by Atanassova et al., presents modern spectral instruments and methods of data processing, which are applied to distinguish infected to noninfected meat and dairy products, as well as to perform qualitative and quantitative determination of available bacteria, as an indicator of freshness or spoilage.

    Chapter 11, entitled Use of Bacterial Growth Curve for Assessing Risk of Microbiological Pathogens in Food Products, prepared by Chavasit et al., describes the bacterial exponential growth equation as an alternative, which can be modified and applied for establishing nonzero tolerant standards for certain types of pathogens in food products.

    In Chapter 12, Biosensors and Express Control of Bacterial Contamination of Different Environmental Objects, Starodub et al. aimed to analyze the efficiency of some biosensors to detect different types of microbial pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhimurium. These biosensors are based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR), chemiluminescence (ChL), quartz crystal acoustic wave, total internal reflectance ellipsometry (TIRE), amperometry, and ion-selective field effect transistors (IsFETs); and may involve various nanostructures, such as quantum dots, graphene, and nanorods.

    In Chapter 13, Mycotoxins in Foods: Mycotoxicoses, Detection, and Management, Kharayat and Singh discuss the importance of monitoring or surveillance of mycotoxins levels in crops and food products, which can be implemented in pre- and postharvest conditions. Authors show that this approach could lead to improvement in food industry, reduce food degradation rates, and lower health-related risks associated to the ingestion of mycotoxins containing foods.

    Chapter 14, Multiple-Locus Variable-Number of Tandem-Repeats Analysis as Subtyping Technique for Food-Borne Pathogens, prepared by Bustamante and Sanso, summarizes most of the available MLVA (Multiple-Locus Variable-Number of Tandem-Repeats Analysis) protocols for the detection of diverse food poisoning bacteria, principally Salmonella and Clostridium species, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and non-O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes, and provides examples of their applications. Authors also evaluate MLVA advantages and limitations, and, in some cases, compare MLVA results with those obtained from pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).

    Chapter 15, entitled Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils in Food Systems—An Overview, prepared by Freitas and Cattelan, provides an overview of the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of essential oils of spices. Authors discuss scientific and technological relevant approaches, currently investigated for the possible use of these substances in developing biopreservation food systems. This is an emerging area of research, which excels in promoting the extension of the shelf life of food products, coupled with the market need in the search for healthy foods.

    Alina M. Holban

    University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

    Alexandru M. Grumezescu

    Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

    Chapter 1

    Food Products and Food Contamination

    Katepogu Kamala

    Venkobarao Pavan Kumar    Rayalaseema University, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India

    Abstract

    Food contamination is a severe public health problem around the world, resulting in food-borne diseases that affect human beings every year. In this chapter we concentrate on food contamination by microorganisms, chemicals, and physiological factors. Most of the foods serve as the best media for the growth of diverse microorganisms. Microorganisms that grow in foods may cause changes in appearance, flavor, odor, and other features of the foods. The degradative changes produced by microorganisms, such as putrefaction, fermentation, and rancidity, in addition to degradation; microorganisms also synthesize the substances, such as pigments and slimes, which also cause changes in food quality.

    Different types of contamination mechanisms are involved in food contamination. Small factors that can cause food-borne illness are storage and cooking temperatures, insufficient hand washing, and animal waste. Microbes can be entered into food from humans who washed their hands not systematically. Most kitchen tools and their surfaces contaminated by raw food products. Replications of pathogens are present in food to cause diseases. In conclusion, this chapter explores the possibilities of food contamination by various methods. This chapter discusses elements of a microbial contamination and the need to perform risk assessments, and additional areas of improvement in the preservation of risks.

    Keywords

    microorganisms

    health

    pathogens

    risk

    Food has a vital significance in our lives. It is necessary for our development beginning with the moment when we are conceived. A person consumes on average 30 tons of food during a lifetime, under different versions of diets that vary locally, nationally, and internationally. If we refe to food in general, it is a mixture of chemicals that can be divided into four categories: nutrients, natural toxins, contaminants, and additives. A food is safe when its consumption does not alter or danger the consumer’s health. The concept of food safety has no universally accepted definition. Food security can be defined as all activities that ensure that food does not cause any health problem to consumers. This simple definition covers a wide range of activities from the basic staff hygiene to the most complex technical procedures to remove contaminants from the process or processed foods. The impacts of environment change on food safety used to analyze the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) explanation of a food management scheme (FAO/WHO, 2003).

    1. Food Contamination

    Contamination of food refers to the occurrence of harmful microorganisms and chemicals in food may lead to consumer illness. This chapter addresses food contamination, which can be found under food-borne illness. The impact of contaminants on customer health is often apparent only after many years of processing. Seventy percent of all cases of diarrhea in children may be recognized by the food contamination (Usfar et al., 2010). Contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing (unlike most microbiological agents). Contaminants can be classified according to the source of contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product. Food contamination is a serious problem affecting many consumers across the world. Although there are efforts to control the problem, it still happens in many restaurants and hotels, as well as private homes. The anonymous pathogenic agents can cause illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths by the food contamination (Mead et al., 1999). The insecure drinking water and not proper food handling practices causes diarrhea, which is the second most significant cause of child death worldwide (Usfar et al., 2010). Purchased food from the outside is not safer than home-cooked food. The usual protection concern on outside food was an unclean environment, quality of ingredients used, uncovered containers, personal hygiene of the food handlers cooking in used oils (Gavaravarapu et al., 2009).

    Food security is built on many mutual principles that insist that operators and their personnel follow to create and provide food in the safest method. It also explains that producing a culture of food safety requirements, the purpose of the most excellent science with the best supervision and communication systems, together with rapid and continual food safety messages using numerous media are required (Powell et al., 2011).

    The death of an affected person can be caused by food contamination and food poisoning. The entry of bacteria, viruses, or toxins into the food can cause food contamination. Center for Disease Control (CDC) reported that nearly 6 to 33 million cases of food poisoning are reported each year. For this reason, several different actors have the authorization for responsible for food contamination. They may include farmers, growers, shippers, packagers, and sellers, as well as distributors. Actors in the food industry can be liable for different legal food contamination theories, such as a defective product, breach of warranty, and negligence among others. It is important to prove that they particularly caused the food contamination to make any of these actors legally liable.

    A person is requisite to verify that the foodstuff was not secure, a person is sick, and the insecure food was the most important source of the poor health. The malefactor has to have suffered symptoms of illness caused by the food contamination. Food contamination is a serious problem that has the potential to affect the lives of millions of people. Subsequently, the state has come up with various legal provisions to protection consumers. Although the state works on the similar principles, these legal provisions may vary from country to country. The law ensures that the consumer is compensated if the offender is found liable. Ibrahim et al. (2011) conducted research on assessing the awareness and practice of food security and cleanliness. The results showed that although the students regarded the issues of food safety and personal hygiene as important, they had inadequate knowledge in this area.

    Raw or processed food that is designed for human consumption, including any material like chewing gum, is used in the preparation. The significance of food should not be overemphasized (Codex, 1991). The food security phenomenon has been defined by the FAO as Food security exists when all people have social, economic and physical access at all times to safe, sufficient and nutritious food which meets their food preferences and dietary needs for a healthy and active life (FAO, 2008a) (Fig. 1.1).

    Figure 1.1   Events for Contamination of Food (SITXOHS002A—Follow Workplace Hygiene Procedures).

    Food may be contaminated by chemicals, microbes, insects, rodents, or other foreign particles. The assembly of microbes is not mechanically bad. Many new food products can be generated by the addition of microbes to foods. We can state that baked apples are spoiled if juice from a peach pie drips in from the rack above. Luckily, the baked apples are still safe to eat unless you are affected by peaches. The baked apples are no longer pure if they are infected with peach juice. Food can be just impure but not harmful or unhealthy. In contamination, that count is not likely or planned. The material additional may not cause inconvenience. Temperature increases the occurrence of microbes and patterns of their corresponding food-borne diseases. These changes have an effect on microbial ecology and growth, animal and plant physiology, and host susceptibility, all of which could impact food-borne diseases (FAO, 2008b).

    2. Types of Food Contamination

    There are three main sources of food contamination.

    1. Physical

    2. Chemical

    3. Biological sources (Fig. 1.2)

    Figure 1.2   Types of Food Contamination.

    2.1. Physical Contaminants

    Physical contamination of food can occur at any stage of manufacture. Most contaminants can harm and also hold potentially detrimental bacteria. The substances that happen to an element of a food mixture are physical contaminants. It may not harm or change the food. But their presence can create health hazards for the user. For example, broken pieces of glass or metal filings are uncommonly entered into foods; these materials should not contaminate food, but if swallowed they can cause damage.

    One more example for physical contamination includes the covering material, insects, and rodent droppings. Rodent and insect contamination poses two major problems. First, rodents can destroy and consume huge quantities of food. Insects damage 10% of the grain crop yearly. Second, the microbes can enter into the food as insects. In this case, flies brought bacteria with their hairy feet. When flies walk on food microorganisms can move from the flies. The surface of foods, such as fruits and vegetables, can be also damaged by the rodents. They allow the opening of the fruits, which causes the entry of germs to reproduce within the foods. Such a combination is not normally encountered in food. Previous radioactive contamination of foods has involved relatively few quantities of radioactive elements, which have delivered low dose rates (National Academy of Sciences, 1973). One ionization in the cell nucleus per day surrounded by radiation levels is approximate (National Academy of Sciences, 1972).

    The food can be contaminated by rodents and insects at any stage of production. Human health cannot be affected by the eggs and their occurrence in minutes. For illustration in the field, insects lay eggs on wheat even though it is budding. Removal of insect eggs from the wheat supply would be really expensive. On the other hand, cockroaches are likely to enter the wheat during the meting-out step. Their presence is less suitable and may be affordably repressed by the food producer. Inspectors need to identify the habits of insects and the process used to manufacture foods. It may help for the inspector to come up with a decision for the measuring of the contamination and the point where contamination occurred.

    2.2. Chemical Contaminants

    Chemical contamination is a potential human health hazard. The chemical contaminants are varying amounts of industrial chemicals, including heavy metals and pesticides. Chemical contaminants in food provide an essential guide to the main chemical contaminants, their physical condition implications, the processes by which they contaminate food products, and methods for their detection and control. Managing pests and insects may lead to chemical contamination. Even though some pesticides, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), have not been used for many years, they are very important and tend to appear in sediments and soil. Once pesticides enter into the environment, they may travel away from their point of application. Insecticides are substances used to obtain improved crop yields with decreasing losses by the rodents. For managing weeds herbicides are used. If pesticide residues remain on food, they come into the food on whichever material is utilized on crops and have to practice systematic difficulty to see how successful it is. Tests may be conducted to come to a decision whether residues pose a health hazard. The second case is that chemical contaminants can go through the food in water. Water is used in the processing of almost every food product. Water is an excellent solvent. Many noxious substances will melt in and pollute water provisions. The word toxic is used for substances that are harmful in low concentrations. Mercury, chloroform, cadmium, benzene, and lead are among the toxic substances that may get into water materials. Several recent reviews have examined the health effects connected with utilization of mercury (NAS, 1978). The most prominent structural changes of the central nervous system resulting from chronic mercury exposure are diffuse cellular degeneration (D’Itri, 1972). Therefore, all animal and vegetable tissues contain at least trace amounts (United Nations Environment Program, 1976). Also, more of good thing may not be a good thing. Whether a material is calculated healthy or toxic is frequently a matter of amount. All are required in very small amounts of zinc for good health. But in high levels, zinc can lead to death. Though there is no need for inspection, most are from well water sources. Organic chemicals most likely pose the maximum potential environmental and food contamination problems (Monitoring Advisory Panel, 1978). FDA may provide technical assistance ask for the state government when a contamination incident is regarded to be a local problem (Jaroslovsky, 1978).

    The sources of chemical contaminants in uncooked materials of animal sources are to a great amount equal to those of raw resources originating from plants (DeVries, 1997). Naturally, human hazards of risk assessments contain two mechanisms. First, a particular exposure can have undesirable consequences; hazard assessment can be determined, and second, a contact measurement to find out if the variety of exposures puts a person in danger of a poor penalty. There are three primary types of potentially carcinogenic compounds present if they act as carcinogens in humans. The first are natural products that may be present in food. For illustration, the process of creating salted fish produces carcinogens, which cannot be simply avoided. Second, are natural products that might be avoided, such as the contamination of grain with the carcinogenic fungal metabolite aflatoxin, which can be reduced or eliminated using best practices for grain storage. Third, anthropogenic chemicals may be present in food.

    Two most significant sources of toxins in water are industrial waste and pesticides. A variety of pesticides have been prohibited because they are not biodegradable. The natural systems can divide them into chemical parts that the environment can securely recover. Although pesticides do not break down, rain washes them into streams and rivers. Pollutants from industry can enter the water supply in a number of ways. Inhospitable surroundings may be dumped directly into bodies of water. Groundwater can filter through buried dump sites and carry pollutants into the water supply. Recurrent testing of factory waste products and water sources is essential to ensure the security of the public. Mercury is one of the substances that often remains in industrial waste. Standards are updated as research reveals new information concerning toxins and their hazards. Leaded gas is the most important source of lead as it creates exhaust that developed on crops and in water.

    Another source of lead was the lead repair used to close the seams on tin cans. Lead solder was responsible for as much as 45% of the lead found in food before this time. Consumers need to be conscious of the other ways lead can leach into water. The FDA recommends avoiding storing acidic beverages or foods in any of these containers. Heat and low pH increase the rate at which lead leaches into water. Climate change may give rise to emerging food safety risks that influence priorities for risk assessment. Washing and drying of hands decrease microbial contamination. Throughout a variety of daily actions at home and work hands quickly become contaminated. A number of performances increase the danger of touch contamination by pathogens more than others. Many food-borne outbreaks, upon examination of information, identified that the hands of food workers is the major source of pathogens in food (Todd et al., 2010). Food that has been exposed to pests and insects must be damaged, and is no longer fit for human utilization.

    2.3. Microbial Contaminants

    The significance of food can never be emphasized (Codex, 1991). Chemical and physical contaminants cannot change the food itself, but there are hazards at that time food is consumed. If unnecessary modifications occur in the food itself, it can be measured as spoiled. Generally, food is considered as contaminated when its flavor, texture, and appearance change. If a tomato has black blurry patches, it is spoiled. Many potato chips have a rank flavor. This is the best example for food spoilage. Food contamination is a change in a food that makes it unhealthy for consumption. Food spoilage occurs at time a toxin or enzyme causes the food to change in unwanted ways. Commonly, enzymes and microorganisms work jointly to spoil food. Softening caused by enzymes can make it easier for molds and bacteria to enter and feed on a food product. Bacteria, fungi, and mold can be a reason for great changes in food. They can also cause unnecessary changes. Current information is that samples of cereal-based infant food was found to bring different mycotoxins (Lombaert et al., 2003). The foods are unpleasant to eat when many modifications occurred in food by spoilage, so the food is unsafe. Presently, avian virus is transferred to humans by the birds handled and caused bird flu (Abbott and Pearson, 2004). However, microorganisms cause unpleasant changes in food that can also cause illness. A sickness caused by eating contaminated food is called food-borne illness. But Escherichia coli infections don’t having similar turn down (Bender et al., 2004). In common meat contamination by the E. coli beef may not have changed (FSIS, 2003).

    The concept of scarcity in nutrients developed a number of decades ago (Youmans, 1941), and undergo significant modify known that (Bendich, 2001). Symptoms like very mild to severe and allergic reactions are highly life-threatening by the foods (Bernstein et al., 2003; Sampson, 1993). In vulnerable persons contact with a specific allergen, the immune system produces specific IgE antibodies (Taylor et al., 2002). Environmental pollens joined with unchangeable vegetables and fresh fruit causes allergy syndromes to people. These allergens interact with the pollens (Ortolani et al., 1988). Certain food is significant with extra effort when organic is not possible. The most extremely spoiled foods are those with chemicals even after washing. The chemical pesticides identified cause birth defects in children and also cancer.

    The consumer’s need for food safety is growing rapidly but the stage of food safety learning remains still low. The lack of food security knowledge results in food security-related health troubles and consumers who have low incomes and have limited food safety data and poor food treatment practices (Nam-E et al., 2010). Food poisoning has been rising in modern years and many of the outbreaks can be traced to contamination caused by people’s poor food cleanliness (Osagbemi et al., 2010). The annual occurrence of food poisoning outbreaks continues to present a large challenge to environmental health management and a hazard to the health of people globally. There is a low level of awareness concerning food poisoning or the potential dangers that lurk side by side with some food nutrients (Osagbemi et al., 2010).

    WHO (2011) reported that the population in developing countries is more prone to suffer from food-borne illnesses for multiple reasons, including lack of access to clean water for food preparation, inappropriate storage and transportation of foods, lack of awareness about safe and hygienic food practices. Food-borne illness outbreaks are reported frequently at national as well as international levels, underscoring the importance of food safety. It is also reported that the health of people in several countries is affected by consuming spoiled food products.

    Climate change may lead to potentially affect all food-borne pathogens and their associated diseases (ECDC, 2007). Intestinal parasites and protozoan infections are among the most common infections worldwide. It is estimated that some 3.5 billion people are affected, and that 450 million are ill as a result of these infections, the majority being children (Zaglool et al., 2011). A climate change study predicted that gastroenteritis would rise over the coming century until 2100 in Australia, due to increases in cases caused by Salmonella bacteria (Bambrick et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2009). Lifestyle changes and resistance are exceptionally hazardous strains of food-borne pathogens generate conditions that may be the main reasons of life-threatening food illnesses (Haapala and Probart, 2004).

    Microbial contamination in human beings comes from numerous sources. It may be introduced by the food handlers and frankly from the hands by coughing or sneezing onto the food or surfaces used around food. Also, it is introduced indirectly by transfer from doors, taps, or clothes. Raw food can be a source of contamination around high-risk poultry. Defrosted meat should be kept from other high risks, such as raw poultry, fresh and frozen, which are contaminated with Salmonella.

    Based on literature, foods are prepared with polluted conditions mostly contaminated with pathogens and associated with malnutrition. In particular, traditional gruels and supplementing breast milk were heavily contaminated with microorganisms. Supplements are main factor in weaning-related diarrhea (Iroegbu et al., 2000). Hence, instruction of mothers in food security ethics, mainly weaning foods must also receive high priority (Motarjemi et al., 1993).

    Microbial contamination leading to infections and poor nutrient associated with weaning foods may contribute significantly to the deaths of 13 million infants and children aged less than 5 years worldwide each year (WHO, 1993). Due to the respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases, the most common illness is the greatest negative impact on the growth of infants and young children (Tetteh et al., 2004). The reason for the diarrheal diseases has traditionally been ascribed to the supply of water and sanitation (Rowland et al., 1978). The relative number of sickness due to food-borne microorganisms makes microbiological quality the most important food safety factor (Gorham and Zarek, 2006). The supreme challenge to guard people from food-borne diseases is to reach in sequence with knowledge on the sources and routes of transmission of pathogens into food (Marika, 2007).

    2.3.1. Most common pathogenic bacteria and virus found in foods

    Many of the viruses that cause gastroenteritis in humans do not have a readily confirmed relationship to ambient hot temperatures (Bambrick et al., 2008) (Table 1.1). Three main routes of viral contamination of foods have been identified: infected food handler, human sewage, and feces (FAO/WHO, 2008). However, the most commonly known cause of both irregular cases and outbreaks of viral transmittable diarrhea in developed countries are human viruses. Particularly, increases in virus infection have been correlated with low population immunity, cold dry temperatures, and hereditary variants (Lopman et al., 2009).

    Table 1.1

    Most common pathogenic bacteria and virus found in foods.

    Bacteria

    Clostridium botulinum

    Salmonella spp.

    Clostridium perfringens

    Botulinum spp.

    Streptococci spp.

    Lactobacilli spp.

    Shigellas spp.

    Listeria monocytogenes

    Staphylococcus aureus

    E. coli

    Campylobacter jejuni

    Bacillus cereus

    Proteus spp.

    Pseudomonas spp.

    Vibrio spp.

    Virus

        Hepatitis A virus

        Rota virus

        Echo virus

        Calcivirus

    2.3.2. Some major bacterial and viral diseases transmitted to humans through food

    Food security is accessed at all times by all people for a healthy life, and is an essential part of a healthy society (Table 1.2). Not having sufficient resources for an impartial nutritious diet can give and take health and physical development in children. There are various types of bacteria in the atmosphere, but all are not harmful. Some types of bacteria are beneficial to keep the digestive tract healthy. When harmful bacteria, also known as pathogens, enter the food and water supply, they can cause food-borne illness and even death. Spoilage bacteria can cause foods to smell and taste bad. These bacteria can be harmful, but probably will not cause illness. Disease-causing bacteria are more severe because they usually do not make the food smell or taste bad, but they may lead to illness.

    Table 1.2

    Some major bacterial and viral diseases transmitted to humans through food.

    2.3.3. Food-borne infection

    Food-borne infections are discussed in details in Tables 1.3–1.5.

    Table 1.3

    Food-borne infections.

    Table 1.4

    Food-borne illnesses caused by toxins.

    Table 1.5

    Food-borne viral infections.

    3. Types of Food

    Food is naturally divided into groups based on how healthy they are. There are four important groups of food. For health and well-being we require food from each of these groups. Several foods contain more than one group of food and milk contains all groups of food.

    There are four major food groups:

    1. Carbohydrates

    2. Protein

    3. Fat

    4. Vitamins and minerals

    3.1. Carbohydrates

    Carbohydrates are substances that include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are useful for the body to create energy and contain sugars and starches. Plants utilize carbohydrates to build structures and accumulate any excess as starch, whereas animals use protein to construct structures and accumulate any excess as fat. They are naturally obtained from plants. These are broken down in the body to form glucose and stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. Plants make carbohydrates from sunlight, water, chlorophyll, and carbon dioxide. Obtained from plants:

    • Cereals

    • Legumes (pulses)

    • Starchy roots

    • Sugars and syrups

    • Vegetables and fruits

    Carbohydrates are essentially used to produce energy in the body. If there is a need for energy, think of carbohydrates. The energy is mainly used in the human body for:

    • External activities: sport, work, and leisure; by every movement of the body.

    • Internal activities: digestion, breathing, pumping blood, and the activities of the immune response.

    3.1.1. Nondigestible carbohydrate (fiber)

    Fibers are the nondigestible carbohydrates in vegetables and, to a smaller extent, in fruit. Fibers are really being fibrous, as in celery.

    Fiber provides:

    • Bulk

    • Nutrition for friendly bacteria in the colon

    • Lubrication

    Some food passes speedily through the digestive system, but these waste products are retained for less time in the body. Various fibers have the consequence of lubricating the contents of the intestines, making the food pass through easily and in a timely manner. In the colon, bacteria feed on fiber and are nourished by it. Friendly bacteria help us to digest food and fiber is essential for a strong and complete digestive system. By sharing fiber with water it swells up and provides mass to the digestive system, making it easier for food to pass through the intestine.

    3.2. Proteins

    Proteins are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. They may also have sulfur and phosphorus. These are complex molecules made of amino acids.

    Benefits of proteins to our body are:

    • To facilitate development and repair.

    • To build muscles, tissues, and organs, such as heart, digestive organs, and lungs.

    • Enzymes are required for digestion.

    • Hormones are required for the endocrine glands.

    Proteins are essential not only for body structure but also for the immune and digestive systems. Meat, fish, and dairy products, including eggs, can provide total protein. Proteins are also obtained from certain combinations of foods, such as cereals and beans.

    3.3. Fats and Oils

    Fats not soluble in water and are made up of fatty acids and glycerol. Lipid is the other name for fats. The main sources of fat are animal meat, fish, and vegetable oils, and so on.

    Benefits of fats to the body:

    • To build nerves, brain; 40% fat is present in brain

    • In each cell structure

    • Construct sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormone

    • To produce cholesterol

    • Absorb certain vitamins (A, D, E, and K)

    • For storing energy

    Fats have gotten a bad name in recent times, yet they are an essential food. That is, the body needs its ingestion of fat every day for health and well-being. Similar to all groups of foods, when the body does not get the fat it needs, illness results.

    3.4. Vitamins and Minerals

    Vitamins are required in the diet for health and well-being. They are divided into fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Water-soluble vitamins are C and B.

    Nonorganic substances that are essential in the diet are minerals, but they require only small amounts in our diet and are also significant for building bones, regulating heartbeat, and teeth.

    Vitamins and minerals are present in different types of foods. By eating a variety of foods, the body can get the necessary vitamins and minerals. Deficiencies and excesses can produce illness. Western diets are specially lacking in the minerals calcium and iron. Calcium is obtained from milk. Iron can be obtained from meat. Chemical contaminants are present in our food from different sources. Therefore, analysis of chemical contaminants is important for food safety to ensure consumer security and compliance. Modern analytical techniques can determine known chemical contaminants in complex food matrices at small concentrations. Additionally, they can also identify new or unexpected chemical contaminants (Fig. 1.3).

    Figure 1.3   Different Varieties of Food Sources.

    4. Contaminated Food Products

    4.1. Milk, Butter, and Cheese

    Commercial cheese, milk, and butter that have growth hormones and antibiotics are also serious concerns. Dairy products are highly contaminated with pesticides, animal pesticides, and chemicals in the milk.

    4.2. Poultry, Beef, and Pork

    Meat is also contaminated with pesticides. A variety of chemical pesticides are assembled in the fatty tissue of animals and fat solubles. Drugs, antibiotics, and hormones are collected and are agreed to by customers. Also, freshwater and ocean fish carry superior risk for heavy metals pesticides.

    4.3. Raspberries, Strawberries, and Cherries

    There are 66 different pesticides used on strawberries, and 90% of strawberries tested record pesticide defects above safe levels. Strawberries are the most seriously dosed with pesticides. Cherries have approximately 25 pesticides and 91% contamination.

    4.4. Pears and Apples

    Tested apples (91%) have pesticides. Peeling nonorganic apples reduces but does not reduce the danger of ingesting chemicals. With 36 different chemicals recognized in FDA testing, mostly they are neurotoxins; apples are nearly as spoiled as strawberries.

    4.5. Tomatoes

    Thirty pesticides are used for conventionally grown tomatoes. The thin skin does not stop chemicals from making susceptible the entire tomato.

    4.6. Potatoes

    Potatoes are most popular vegetables, but they are also spoiled with pesticides and fungicides. Twenty-nine pesticides are usually used and 79% of potatoes experienced overconfined levels of numerous pesticides.

    4.7. Other Greens and Spinach

    Spinach is the vegetable that is commonly contaminated with pesticides used on food. Eighty-three percent of frequently used spinach tested is contaminated with dangerous levels of 36 chemical pesticides.

    4.8. Coffee

    Coffee is developed in countries everywhere and there are no principles to the make use of pesticides and chemicals on food. Coffee is a regrettable culprit in this cruel cycle of spiteful agriculture.

    4.9. Nectarines and Peaches

    Forty-five types of pesticides are normally applied to delicious peaches and nectarines in orchards. The thin skin does not protect the fruit from the dangers of these poisons.

    4.10. Grapes

    Thirty-five varieties of pesticides are used for grape cultivation. Grapes are sprayed several times during different levels of growth. Imported grapes are still more heavily treated than grapes grown in the United States. Eighty-six percent of grapes test positive for pesticide contamination; samples from Chile showed the highest attention of the most noxious chemicals. Most of the toxic pesticides ineligible in the United States are still used on grapes grown abroad.

    4.11. Celery

    Conventionally developed celery is subjected to 29 different chemicals, which may not be washed off. Because celery does not have a protective skin, 94% of celery tested was found to have pesticide residue in contravention of safe levels.

    5. Entry of Pathogens Into the Food Supply

    The bacteria replication enables new strains to develop rapidly: 24 h is enough to produce new bacteria in thousands by the genetic change in a bacterium. The major cause of the complexity in the food chain is the growth of fresh and hardier strains of microorganisms, but a genetic change in a human takes around 20 years to appear in a few children. New strains of microorganisms are amplified due to slight genetic differences in a small percentage of microorganisms. For example, when antibiotics are known to chicken, most of the bacteria are killed. But a small percentage of the bacteria have some minor dissimilarity. This makes them harder to kill and allows them to survive. There are two major ways food can turn into contaminated with pathogens. An improper handling procedure causes transmission of pathogens by animals.

    5.1. Transmission by Animals

    Several types of the food infections are from animal sources. Abundant microorganism carriers are animals. The protein-based foods from animal sources may supply an atmosphere in which microbes can reproduce and generate.

    5.2. Warm-Blooded Animals as Carriers

    Animals carry microorganisms to foodstuffs. The majority of the warm-blooded animals contain microorganisms existing in and on them. The major origin occurs by allowing food products to contact animal feces. The best example is E. coli bacteria, which may contaminate apple juice. Juices have been infected by deer. E. coli may be permitted out of the body in feces. Deer will feed on apples that grow on the lower branches of apple trees. Deer, too, emit in apple orchards where they eat. E. coli living in the colons of humans and other mammals, as well as deer. When E. coli enters the stomach and small intestines they can cause illness. Within the colon bacteria help rupture down waste

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