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From Musket to Metallic Cartridge: A Practical History of Black Powder Firearms
Azioni libro
Inizia a leggereLunghezza: 703 pagine5 ore
- Editore:
- Crowood
- Pubblicato:
- Nov 30, 2013
- ISBN:
- 9781847975942
- Formato:
- Libro
Descrizione
From Musket to Metallic Cartridge is an historical introduction to the use of black powder firearms, from the primitive smooth-bore musket to breech-loading cartridge guns, as well as a primer on their practical use for today's black powder shooters. Drawing on his experience of countless hours on the shooting range, backed up by meticulous research, Oyvind Flatnes relates over 500 years of development and covers the huge range of different ignition systems, models and patents. He describes the use of antique firearms and replicas, discussing their historical and safe modern use. The book is profusely illustrated throughout, with both photographs and diagrams, showing a range of guns and their ammunition, with some live firing shots showing them in action. Aimed at shooters, collectors and general gun and weapons enthusiasts, this book will inspire the reader to learn more about how firearms work, and to take them onto the range too. Superbly illustrated with 265 colour photographs and diagrams.
Informazioni sul libro
From Musket to Metallic Cartridge: A Practical History of Black Powder Firearms
Lunghezza: 703 pagine5 ore
Descrizione
From Musket to Metallic Cartridge is an historical introduction to the use of black powder firearms, from the primitive smooth-bore musket to breech-loading cartridge guns, as well as a primer on their practical use for today's black powder shooters. Drawing on his experience of countless hours on the shooting range, backed up by meticulous research, Oyvind Flatnes relates over 500 years of development and covers the huge range of different ignition systems, models and patents. He describes the use of antique firearms and replicas, discussing their historical and safe modern use. The book is profusely illustrated throughout, with both photographs and diagrams, showing a range of guns and their ammunition, with some live firing shots showing them in action. Aimed at shooters, collectors and general gun and weapons enthusiasts, this book will inspire the reader to learn more about how firearms work, and to take them onto the range too. Superbly illustrated with 265 colour photographs and diagrams.
- Editore:
- Crowood
- Pubblicato:
- Nov 30, 2013
- ISBN:
- 9781847975942
- Formato:
- Libro
Informazioni sull'autore
Correlati a From Musket to Metallic Cartridge
Anteprima del libro
From Musket to Metallic Cartridge - Oyvind Flatnes
Index
Preface
This book is an historical introduction to the use of black powder firearms, from the primitive smooth-bore musket to breech-loading cartridge guns, as well as a primer on their practical use for today’s black powder shooters.
The result of countless hours on the shooting range and in the library, the book spans more than 500 years of firearms development and covers a vast amount of different ignition systems, models and patents. The biggest challenge has been to limit each chapter to including only the most important information. If the opportunity arose I could probably write a book on each of the chapters.
This book describes the use of antique firearms (and replicas of these) and many will probably wonder if old guns are safe to shoot. The answer is yes, as long the gun is in a safe working condition. However, you should always have the firearm checked by a competent gunsmith before shooting and only use black powder.
Photographs and illustrations are an important part of the book too. Illustrations are drawn in Adobe Illustrator. Unless otherwise noted, all photographs are shot with a Canon EOS 500D SLR camera with a Canon EF-S 60mm f/2.8 Macro USM lens. For most indoor shots I used one or two Elinchrom D-Lite 4 studio flashes. Kevin Booth has kindly supplied me with the brilliant photographs of living history and re-enactment groups.
Many have helped me along the way and not everyone can be mentioned here, but I am grateful to all the collectors who have let me into their houses and allowed me to photograph their firearms: Ivar Evjevollen, Ronny Birkeland, Tor Bjarne Justnæs, Geir Skjævesland, Tore Nilssen, Viggo Berrefjord, Rune Blix, Erik Høgeli, John Wikstøland Thorbjørn Holst. I would also like to thank Frode Mølland for carrying a lot of guns for me during the biggest photo session. Tor Bjarne Justnæs deserves a big thank you for helping to organize the photo shoots, and in addition for helping me with proofreading and general tips and advice. Your efforts are greatly appreciated.
Finally I want to thank my wife Marte for putting up with all the work at a time when I should have been more focused on other things, and my son Sondre, who was born during the final stages of the work: thanks for sleeping through the night.
Whether you are a shooter, collector or general historical gun enthusiast, I hope this book will inspire you to learn more about how your firearms work – and perhaps to take them to the range.
If you are interested in more information you may want to visit my website svartkrutt.net or the book’s homepage at blackpowderbook.com.
Øyvind Flatnes
Bergen, March 2013
Swedish 12mm Model 1867 Remington rolling block.
Chapter 1
THE AGE OF FIREARMS
Technical Development from the Middle Ages until 1900
It is not known when man first started using weapons. When primitive man first stood up on his hind legs – perhaps even before – he was capable of heaving stones. As time went by his descendants developed primitive technology: in the Stone Age humans were skilled in the use of clubs, spears, slings and axes. The invention of the bow and arrow 60,000 years ago enabled our prehistoric ancestors to kill forest-dwelling game that would normally be scared off if a spear-wielding hunter rushed at it. By the time of the Hundred Years War (1337– 1453) medieval soldiers had perfected the art of archery.
In the thirteenth century, however, rumours began spreading in medieval Europe about an exploding powder, capable of making a horrific noise that made soldiers flee battlefields in terror. The invention of this potent mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate (saltpetre), sulphur and charcoal, later known as gunpowder or black powder, would revolutionize weaponry and warfare – even the whole of society. The age of firearms had begun.
While the black powder remained essentially the same throughout the years, the firearms gradually developed from simple handheld pipes without a stock or lock to rapid-firing machine guns. The development of firearms from the late Middle Ages to 1900 is a vast subject. While most later chapters in this book will focus on specific models or systems, this chapter is intended as a quick overview of the evolution of black powder and firearms over the course of 500 years.
BLACK POWDER
It is not known exactly where and when black powder was invented: one theory suggests it originated in China, while another argues that it arrived in Europe with Arabian merchants who traded with Moorish-occupied Southern Spain in the Middle Ages.
The first source known to mention the making of black powder is a letter entitled Epistola de secretis operibus artis et naturae, et de nullitate magiae (Letter on the Secret Workings of Art and Nature, and on the Vanity of Magic), written in about 1248 by Roger Bacon, a philosopher and friar in the Franciscan order. Bacon risked excommunication or worse if the Inquisition found him guilty of publishing information that could be used for military purposes or practising magic. The Epistola was probably written as a defence against accusations of the latter and revealed much of black powder’s recipe, but the proportions of the charcoal were hidden in an anagram that remained a mystery until 1904 when it was solved by Lt Col. Henry W. L. Hime of the Royal Artillery. The recipe described by Bacon consisted of 41 per cent saltpetre, 29.5 per cent charcoal made from young hazel branches and 29.5 per cent sulphur. Although sometimes credited as the inventor of black powder, Bacon himself claimed that the powder was already known ‘in different parts of the world’.
Rumours about the exploding powder soon spread across Europe. According to the Icelandic Laurentius Saga, a Flemish man called Thrand visited King Erik II Magnusson of Norway in Bergen in 1294, the year of Bacon’s death. Thrand made what the saga describes as ‘war crack’, which according to the chronicler made such a horrifying noise that ‘very few men could bear to hear it, women with child fall in labour when they hear it, and men fall down out of their seats on the floor, or are troubled otherwise’. The noise that made such an impression on medieval people unaccustomed to a clamour of this sort was probably caused by some kind of firework or small bomb.
Black powder granulations from fine to coarse: (left to right) Wano PPPP priming powder; Swiss No. 2 (FFFg); Swiss No. 3 (FFg); Swiss No. 4 (1½ Fg); and Swiss No. 5 (Fg).
During the Middle Ages gunpowder was made by grinding the ingredients separately and mixing them together dry. Known as serpentine powder, the result was not very reliable and hang-fires and misfires must have been common. During transportation the powder separated, and the heavier saltpetre descended to the bottom of the keg or powder horn, while the lighter charcoal rose to the surface.
Corned powder, which eliminated the problem of the ingredients separating, was an improvement on serpentine powder. It was made in purpose-built powder mills and was first mentioned in a French source dating from 1429. Sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal were crushed into fine powder and mixed with water, after which the wet substance was pressed into large cakes and left to dry. The powder cakes were later cut to grains and sorted by grain size: coarse powder for cannons and muskets, and finer grain powder for small arms.
The reason for sorting powder according to grain size is that smaller powder grains burn more quickly than coarse grains and powder with a high burning rate increases the pressure in the barrel. If fine-grained powder were used in a large-bore weapon the barrel could bulge or even burst from the pressure, which was often the case in medieval times.
The processing became more refined as powder makers began using purer sulphur and saltpetre, while wood was hand-picked for the purpose of making charcoal for powder. An optimum composition of the three ingredients gradually developed in response to the practical experiences of shooters and gunners. By the end of the black powder era, between 1850 and 1890, black powder reached its peak quality: the modern composition of black powder is about 75 per cent saltpetre, 15 per cent charcoal and 10 per cent sulphur.
In the 1800s small arms powder was usually divided into three grades or granulations: fine-grained sporting powder for pistols and small-bore rifles up to about .45–.50 calibre: medium-grained rifle powder for larger rifle calibres up to .60; and coarse musket powder for large-bore muskets. Sporting powder burned fastest and musket powder slowest; rifle powder was somewhere in between. Modern equivalents of sporting, rifle and musket powder are FFFg, FFg and Fg, respectively.
Although the powder was perceived as magic in the Middle Ages, the various ingredients each had different tasks that can be logically explained: saltpetre provided oxygen for the combustion; sulphur contributed to the combustion and helped to make the powder water-resistant, keeping the powder mass together; while charcoal provided the carbon that fuelled the reaction.
Once ignited in a barrel the sulphur and charcoal start to glow. The saltpetre produces large amounts of oxygen, which creates an explosion. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen force the bullet out of the barrel. About fifty per cent of the powder is transformed into gases, while the rest is turned into white smoke, black residue and fouling. The characteristic smell of burnt black powder is caused by sulphur compounds that react with air humidity and transform into hydrogen sulphide.
Black Powder Today
The most common black powder brands are Swiss, American Goex, German Wano (marketed as Schuetzen in America) and Slovenian KIK. Sporting black powder is usually divided into four granulations using the Fg scale. Fg is the coarsest and FFFFg the finest. As a general rule Fg is used in large-bore muskets, small cannons and large-capacity cartridges, FFg in large-bore rifles and pistols, FFFg in small-bore rifles and pistols, while FFFFg is priming powder for flintlocks. The German Wano black powder uses a P scale, which is similar to the Fg system: PPP equals FFFg and so on.
A collection of modern black powder: (left to right) four boxes of Swiss; a cylindrical paper carton of Swiss priming powder; German Wano; Brazilian Elephant; American Goex; and, far right, an old Curtis & Harvey can.
The letter g behind the grain size designation indicates that the powder is glazed. Glazing, or polishing, involves tumbling the grains for several hours in large cylinders to round the corners of the granules. Towards the end of the process, graphite is often added to the powder to prevent the grains from clumping together.
Poudrerie d’Aubonne SA in Switzerland has been making black powder since 1853 and uses numbers to indicate granulations. The numbering goes the opposite way to the F and P system: Swiss powder No. 1 is priming powder, while Swiss No. 5 equals Fg. The Swiss powder has an additional granulation, Swiss No. 4 (1.5 Fg), which is intended for metallic cartridges. The grain size is between FFg and Fg. Swiss black powder is by far the best powder on the market. It is thought to burn more cleanly than most other powder brands, although the fouling is considered slightly ‘harder’. Swiss powder has higher self-weight than Wano, for example, and you get more Swiss powder into a given volume than other brands. This means you can get the same effect by using 15–20 per cent less Swiss. While prized by shooters, Poudrerie d’Aubonne manufactures only sixty tons per year out of a total European annual production of about 2,000 tons.
In Britain, Henry Krank sells powders called TPPH and TS2, as well as cheaper coarse, fine and medium powders. TPPH and TS2, made by Wano in Germany, are proofing-house grade powders that are uniform from batch to batch in order to conform to the narrow window demanded by the proof houses. TPPH is suitable for large-bore rifles and shotguns and comparable to Wano PP (FFg), while TS2 is pistol-grade powder similar to Wano PPP (FFFg). The Henry Krank coarse, medium and fine are comparable to Wano P, PP and PPP.
Black powder is highly combustible and its manufacture was – and remains – a risky business. One little spark is enough to blow up a powder mill: the American Goex factory, for example, has suffered several explosions within a few years. Black powder is classified as an explosive and assigned to Division 1.1D in the UN’s hazard classification system for explosive materials and components: 1.1 is the strictest class and includes explosives with a mass explosion hazard, such as nitro-glycerine and dynamite. In many countries shooters have trouble getting licences for storing powder, but most countries now allow shooters to store small quantities of sporting black powder in purpose-made storage boxes.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS
The origin of the first primitive firearms dates back to the Middle Ages. Although an exact dating is impossible, cannons were in use during the first half of the fourteenth century. The first hand-held weapons were primitive pipes, without lock or stock, often known as handgonnes.
Handgonnes without locks were fired from the hip. The gunner held the weapon under the stock with one hand and fired the weapon with a wick or match cord held in the other hand. A small channel connecting the wick to the powder charge, the touch-hole or vent, was located on top of the barrel and it was probably filled with priming powder to secure ignition. Handgonnes were not particularly accurate. While a good archer armed with a longbow could launch an arrow about 400m (440yds), most primitive muskets lost their efficiency on distances that exceeded 40 to 60m (45–65yds). Since one hand had to hold the wick, handgonnes were difficult to aim and, loaded with undersize balls, they were generally inaccurate. The low-velocity bullets did not always pierce armour, and priming powder had a tendency to become moist in humid weather and frequently blew away in heavy wind.
Replica of a 17mm handgonne excavated in a cistern in Tannenberg Castle in 1849. Since the castle was destroyed in 1399, the handgonne must be older. The original was made of bronze and was found loaded with a lead bullet with cut-off sprue. The original is displayed at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg, Germany.
From the late 1300s gunsmiths began mounting the pipes in stocks similar to those of crossbows. Arquebuses or ‘hook guns’ are known from about 1400. These had a metal hook on the underside of the barrel that was placed on the outside of palisades or ships’ bulwarks to absorb recoil.
Matchlock
Some of the shortcomings of the handgonnes were solved when the priming pan, slow match and matchlock were invented. In its most primitive form, the matchlock was simply an S-shaped metal arm mounted on the side of the stock. It is often referred to as the serpentine because of its resemblance to a snake. First known from an illustration dated 1411, the serpentine was mounted on a central pivot on the side of the gun stock and held a glowing match made of hemp saturated in saltpetre. This had to be lit before the shot was fired. The other end of the serpentine acted as a trigger, lifted with the right hand: when the serpentine pivoted the glowing match touched the priming powder and set off the main charge.
The vent was gradually moved to the side of the barrel and a ‘pan’ was installed below it. The priming pan, or flash pan, consisted of an iron plate with a small cavity for the priming powder. Pans were later supplied with covers that prevented the powder from blowing away.
With the introduction of the serpentine lock, shooters were now able to secure the weapon with both hands. Gun stocks were gradually developed and the shape of the butt was altered so that the shoulder could receive the recoil. These improvements allowed easier sighting and better accuracy.
The serpentine lock was replaced by matchlock guns with separate locks and spring-loaded triggers in the mid-1400s. The lock was made on a metal plate and all the moving parts, except for the serpentine, were protected inside the stock. Although the matchlock was an improvement over the serpentine lock, the shot still had to be planned in advance. The match had to be lit and might have gone out by the time the musketeer could fire his musket. The match frequently fell out of the clamps and soldiers often resorted to grabbing the match in the right hand to ignite the priming powder manually. Another challenge was keeping the burning match away from powder.
The glowing match was easily spotted in the dark and if a musketeer was surprised in an ambush, for example, he did not have time to light the match and fire his gun before it was too late. The matchlock was useless for cavalry because it was impossible to light or keep the match lit while on horseback.
The matchlock ignited the priming charge with a glowing match (not shown here) clamped between the jaws of the serpentine. The picture shows an Austrian musket of c.1670.
Wheel Lock
The wheel lock solved some of the problems that cavalry faced with the matchlock. The mechanism dates back to the beginning of the 1500s. Some credit its invention to Leonardo da Vinci because the notebook known as the Codex Atlanticus contains some of the earliest known drawings of wheel locks. Another theory is that the wheel lock was invented by watchmakers in Northern Italy or Southern Germany. Watchmakers worked with cog wheels, springs, retractable devices and other precision mechanics and must indeed have had the knowledge to make the advanced wheel lock.
Instead of relying on a match to ignite the main charge, the concept of the wheel lock is similar to that of a modern lighter. The lock consisted of a serrated, retractable steel wheel that was installed on a lock plate. The wheel was wound up half a revolution by a key and this cocked a strong V-shaped spring. A slot in the flash pan exposed the upper part of the wheel. A piece of pyrite (a mineral containing iron and sulphur) was secured to a cock with jaws that was installed on the lock plate. To fire the wheel lock, the shooter loaded powder and ball into the muzzle, wound up the wheel and placed priming powder on the pan. The cock with the pyrite was then rested on the pan cover. The cock was spring-loaded and pressed the pyrite against the lid. The trigger released the wheel and caused it to rotate quickly. Simultaneously the pan cover was pushed forward and the pyrite was pressed down against the rotating wheel in the pan. The friction between steel and pyrite created sparks that ignited the priming powder and a flash hole connected the priming to the main charge.
Although the wheel lock held some inherent advantages over the matchlock, it was considerably more complicated. The number of parts in its complex mechanism made it expensive to manufacture. The complexity made it prone to breaking and often required a specialist to fix it.
Wheel lock. Note the slot in the pan from which the serrated wheel protrudes.
The wheel lock was difficult to clean, too, and this perhaps contributed to the frequent breakages. Carrying wheel locks with the spring wound weakened the spring and caused misfires. Another problem was that the pyrites lasted for only a few shots and had to be changed often, but it was difficult to tell whether a pyrite was worn just by looking at it.
Its dependence on the key was another disadvantage, since the weapon was rendered useless if it was lost. The mechanism could also jam during cocking if the pan was primed before the wheel was retracted. Despite all its disadvantages, the wheel lock was preferred by cavalry, who could not use matchlocks, and for special duties where lit matches were forbidden, for example, on guard duty or for scouting.
The negative factors prevented widespread use of the wheel lock, but it continued to be used alongside the matchlock until the invention of the flintlock.
Snaphaunce and Flintlock
The less mechanically complicated snaphaunce, which was invented in about 1550, halved the production costs when compared to the wheel lock. Instead of iron pyrites, the snaphaunce used a flint and steel to create sparks. The cock in which the flint was secured was spring-loaded by a large, powerful V-spring. When the flint hit a piece of steel positioned above the pan, a shower of sparks rained into the priming powder and the main charge. Most snaphaunces had a separate pan cover that opened automatically when the cock started its forward motion towards the steel.
The snaphaunce was soon replaced by the flintlock, which basically was an improved version of the snaphaunce. About seventy years younger than the snaphaunce, the flintlock as we know it today was first made by a French family of gunmakers called le Bourgeoys some time between 1610 and 1620. The flintlock was already widespread by about 1650. The snaphaunce, however, remained popular in Scotland until the eighteenth century and in Spain and North Africa into the nineteenth century.
While there is some similarity, the most obvious difference between a flintlock and a snaphaunce is that the flintlock combines the frizzen and pan cover in an L-shaped piece of steel, where the long piece of the L is the frizzen and the short is the pan cover.
Percussion Lock
The problems that previous lock systems had with humidity were greatly eased by the invention of the percussion (or cap) lock at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The flint was now replaced by a copper cap, or primer, containing mercury fulminate. Old flintlocks were easily converted to the new system by removing the frizzen and replacing the priming pan with a drum that was screwed into the vent hole of the flintlock.
The drum was fitted with a hollow metal tube piston or nipple. When loading the gun, a copper percussion cap containing mercury fulminate was placed on the nipple. The cock with jaws was replaced by a flat-faced hammer. When released by the trigger, the hammer hit the cap and a hot flame spurted through the touch hole and into the main charge. The percussion lock was close to being watertight and the delay in ignition that had been common with the matchlock, wheel lock, snaphaunce and flintlock was now history.
(Top) Norwegian 15.8mm (.62in) snaphaunce rifle; (bottom) British replica flintlock .75 calibre Brown Bess musket.
BREECH-LOADING FIREARMS
In the mid-nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution began influencing the firearms industry and the growth towards the twentieth century was explosive. With a few exceptions, almost all small arms made up to the percussion era were muzzle-loaders. Although gunsmiths had worked on various breech-loading systems from the earliest times, the manufacturing facilities required to mass-produce the more complicated breech-loaders were not available until the Industrial Revolution.
The invention of the percussion cap made it easier for gunmakers to create reliable breech-loaders with a gas-tight seal in the breech. Breech-loading firearms were faster to load and allowed shooters to lie down during loading. Early breech-loading firearms, such as the Hall, Sharps and Norwegian chamber-loader, were loaded with paper cartridges but had to be primed or capped manually.
Swiss-born gunmaker Samuel Johannes Pauly is credited with the invention of the first self-contained cartridge in 1808. Together with French gunsmith François Prélat, he created several centrefire cartridges that incorporated the priming compound in the base.
Former Pauly employee Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse used self-contained paper cartridges containing primer, powder and bullet in his Prussian Model 1841 needle-gun or Zündnadelgewehr. The first military firearm to use the characteristic bolt mechanism, the primer was placed behind the base of the bullet, forcing the needle to pierce through the entire powder charge to ignite the cartridge. An improvement over the Dreyse, invented by the French gunsmith Antoine Chassepot in 1866, located the primer in the cartridge base.
Regular and musket size percussion caps.
The percussion lock, such as on this Model 1861 Springfield rifle musket, was almost waterproof and eliminated the delay in ignition.
These Eley 90 bore (.36 calibre) needle-gun cartridges, used in English single-shot ‘garden’ rifles from the 1850s to the 1890s, have the primer located in the bottom of the base, similar to that of the Chassepot cartridge. Cheap compared to early metallic cartridges, they were used in inexpensive Belgian single-shot rook and rabbit tipping barrel arms.
(1) The pinfire cartridge had a percussion cap in the base that was kept in place by a pin. When struck by the hammer the pin ignited the powder charge. (2) The rimfire cartridge had the priming compound located in the rim. (3) The centrefire system utilized a removable primer in the base of the cartridge case.
Metallic Cartridges
Patented by French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in the mid-1830s, the pinfire cartridge represented the first self-contained metallic cartridge system. Lefaucheux’s system consisted of a copper base with a percussion cap and a cardboard powder tube. A metal pin protruded from the rim of the copper base, and when loaded in a firearm the pin extruded through a notch in the chamber. When struck by a hammer the pin hit the cap and ignited the powder.
Lefaucheux’s system was further improved in 1846 when Houllier, another French gunsmith, reinforced the head and placed the cap in a recessed base washer, as well as using thin copper or brass for the case, which made the case expand upon ignition to create a gas-tight seal.
Widely used in shotguns and revolvers, the pinfire system had two major drawbacks: as well as being expensive to manufacture, the protruding pin was sensitive to rough handling. If, for example, the cartridges were carried in the pocket the pin could bump into something and ignite.
The pinfire system became obsolete when Louis-Nicolas-Auguste Flobert from France invented the rimfire cartridge in the mid-1840s. Similar to today’s .22 Long Rifle cartridges, Flobert placed the primer in the rim of a copper cartridge and made the firing pin a part of the weapon. Flobert’s cartridge did not contain powder and the bullets were propelled solely by the energy of the primer. Other makers developed the system further by lengthening the case and adding a powder charge.
.32 Rimfire Long cartridges loaded by the Union Metallic Cartridge Company.
Rimfire cases were formed from a one-piece copper plate that could not withstand high pressures. If thicker plates were used the rim became too thick and prevented the firing pin from igniting the fulminate inside the rim. The centrefire system, invented in 1866, made it possible to reload spent cartridges and make more powerful cartridges.
With the introduction of the metallic cartridge, most countries started converting muzzle-loading rifles and muskets to the new loading method. In parallel with these, new models of shotguns, revolvers, single-shot and repeating rifles started to appear.
Black powder remained the principal propellant for firearms for about 500 years, but was rapidly replaced when smokeless powder appeared in the mid-1880s. The smokeless powders were more powerful and allowed for flatter trajectories, reduced fouling to a minimum and did not leave a cloud of smoke upon firing. The next chapter looks at how firearms were used in warfare from the Middle Ages until the arrival of smokeless powder.
Chapter 2
THE GUN IN WARFARE
500 Years of Firearms on the Battlefield
Large military conflicts have always boosted the development of firearms. Medieval armies usually clashed together in closely packed formations, while infantry in the Napoleonic Wars marched shoulder to shoulder in thin lines until face to face with the enemy. A hundred years later, the soldiers of the First World War entrenched themselves and turned war into an endless stalemate. Battlefield tactics gradually changed as firearms technology progressed from inaccurate smooth-bore muskets to accurate metallic cartridge rifles.
Black powder small arms were used in warfare for about 500 years from the Middle Ages to the late 1800s. Their development was slow to begin with, but parallel with the Industrial Revolution in which machines replaced craftsmen and artisans, it progressed rapidly, especially in the last part of the 1800s.
Putting down unrest in America. The re-enactors from His Majesty’s 22nd Regiment of Foot, pictured here, focus on the life and times of the ordinary British soldier during the American War of Independence that raged between 1775 and 1783. Photo: Kevin Booth
Gunpowder may have been used in warfare as early as the eleventh century, but in the period following its arrival in Europe, proper weapons did not yet exist. According to the Laurentius Saga, written in the mid-1300s, powder was employed in the shape of fireworks or small bombs to terrorize the enemy: ‘Now men often use this war-crack in battle, to the end that they who are not used to it may fly all ways.’ As well as drowning out the clamour of swords and war cries, the noise of the exploding black powder could have been attributed to witchcraft and the black arts, which alone could cause superstitious soldiers to flee the battlefield.
As time went by the shock effect of fireworks and bombs probably diminished, but soldiers soon faced deadlier threats with the introduction of the first firearms. Most sources indicate that the cannon was the first black powder weapon successfully used in warfare. According to a document written by Albertus Magnus in 1280, the Moorish defenders of the Andalusian capital Seville used artillery loaded with rocks during the defence of the city against Ferdinand III of Castile in 1247.
.70 calibre (17.8mm) handgonne of probable Swiss origin, made c.1450 with a stock from the 1850s. Fired from the hip, it has no lock, and a hand-held wick was used to ignite powder through a touch hole on top of the barrel.
The first reliable first-hand report of cannons in warfare dates from the Battle of Crécy (1346), where England faced France and its allies in the first major battle of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453). Although the English utilized two cannons during the battle, the casualties inflicted by artillery were probably quite low and the shock effect would have been most important. Firearms never dominated the battles of the war. At Crécy and Agincourt (1415) the English longbow archers proved superior to both crossbowmen and armoured knights.
Poorly developed logistics complicated transportation of the heavy medieval field artillery. Stationary fortification and siege artillery became the favoured medieval ordnance. Compared to ballistas and catapults, the powerful new artillery was capable of crushing stone walls and eventually led to the demise of stone castles.
Despite defeats such as Crécy and Agincourt, knights still ruled the medieval battlefield. Mounted on horseback and benefitting from years of training with sword and lance, the warrior aristocracy dressed in heavy armour that provided efficient protection against arrows, swords and lances. The invention of the handgonne became an immediate threat to the knights. First recorded in 1364 when the Italian city state of Perugia ordered 500 hand cannons ‘no longer than the palm of a person’s hand’, this early predecessor of the musket was capable of penetrating heavy armour.
The following two centuries saw a gradual transition from archers to muskets. In England, Henry VII officially introduced small arms into the Royal Guard when he organized the corps of Yeomen of the Guard after the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, ordering half of the men to carry longbows and the other half to be equipped with arquebuses. These primitive muskets were far from superior, as the archers were capable of releasing a number of arrows in the time it took a musketeer to load his muskets. While it took years to train archers, however, common peasants required minimal training to assume the role of a musketeer. This eventually led to the demise of the archers.
A combination of firearms and more efficient use of longbows made a change in cavalry tactics inevitable. From about 1400 the knights were gradually replaced by a new type of cavalry with lighter equipment and armour. The new cavalry could manoeuvre more easily and proved more effective against infantry armed with muskets.
Although they survived longer than the archers, the role of pikemen on the battlefield also soon came to an end. Remnants from medieval armies, the pikemen were armed with long lances, or pikes, that were particularly efficient against cavalry in close-quarter fighting. Pikemen, however, were vulnerable to muskets and artillery. Towards the end, pikemen often assisted the musketeers in close combat and acted as a reserve against cavalry attacks. Another common practice was to use pikes in the centre and arquebusiers on the flanks. When the bayonet came into use about 1690, the musketeers took the dual role of musketeers and pikemen and from about 1700 pikemen were rarely seen on the battlefield.
The medieval battle order was characterized by compact and massive block formations that were intended to penetrate enemy lines. With the arrival of firearms this tactic was abandoned because a soldier was unable to fire with others in front of him. From now on the linear tactics began to emerge: instead of large squares of pikemen moving as a block, soldiers were lined up in ranks to facilitate efficient musketry.
Bayonets
A bayonet is a knife, sword or spike-shaped weapon fixed to the muzzle of a firearm and used for stabbing during close-quarter fighting. The first bayonets were primitive plug bayonets with rounded handles that slid into the musket barrel. When fixed, the musket could not be fired. The plug bayonet was replaced in the late 1600s by the socket bayonet, which was attached over the outside of the barrel using a ring-shaped socket. This fixing device allowed the soldier to shoot and reload the musket with the bayonet attached. This was not entirely without risk, as it was not uncommon for soldiers to stab their own hands during loading. The sabre bayonet was a combined sabre and bayonet that was popular from the mid-1800s.
(Top to bottom) Socket and yataghan sabre bayonet.
A musketeer with a matchlock musket and musket fork, from an engraving by the Dutch artist Jacques de Gheyn II (1565–1629). From the early sixteenth century the matchlock musket developed into the form that was to dominate for the next 200 years. Because of their considerable weight, the heaviest muskets used a musket fork with two iron limbs mounted on a wooden pole as a support. The powder was pre-measured in charges carried in containers of bone or wood (often called apostles), which
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