Rock Fracture and Blasting: Theory and Applications

Rock Fracture and Blasting

Theory and Applications

Zong-Xian Zhang

Professor of Rock Mechanics

Department of Arctic Technology

University Centre in Svalbard,

Longyearbyen, Svalbard, NORWAY

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

About the Author

Preface

Part I: Stress Waves and Shock Waves

Chapter 1: Stress Waves

Abstract

1.1. Coordinates, wave velocity, and particle velocity

1.2. Category of stress waves in solids

1.3. Reflection and transmission of elastic waves

1.4. Theory of one-dimensional elastic stress waves

1.5. Stress wave analysis using a Lagrangian diagram

1.6. Impact of two elastic bars

1.7. Energy in an impact system

1.8. Propagation of elastic waves in two different materials

1.9. Wave reflection on a rigid wall and on a free surface

1.10. Propagation of elastic waves in three different materials

1.11. Superposition of elastic stress waves

1.12. Spalling caused by stress wave loading

1.13. Split Hopkinson pressure bar system

1.14. Attenuation and dispersion of stress waves

1.15. Separation of two waves from a blast

1.16. Sonic velocities and densities of different mediums

1.17. Concluding remarks

1.18. Exercises

Chapter 2: Shock Waves

Abstract

2.1. Characteristics of shock waves

2.2. Rankine–hugoniot jump equations

2.3. Interaction of shock waves

2.4. Rarefaction waves

2.5. Shock wave attenuation

2.6. On applications of shock wave theory

2.7. Concluding remarks

2.8. Exercises

Part II: Rock Fracture and Fragmentation

Chapter 3: Rock Fracture and Rock Strength

Abstract

3.1. Rocks

3.2. Geological structures

3.3. Rock strength

3.4. Rock fracture and fracture toughness

3.5. Rock fragmentation

3.6. Relation between rock strengths

3.7. Relation between fracture toughness and strength

3.8. The reason why rock fracture toughness and rock strengths are related

3.9. Process of rock fracture

3.10. Energy required for rock fracture

3.11. Discussion

3.12. Concluding remarks

3.13. Exercises

Chapter 4: Effect of Loading Rate on Rock Fracture

Abstract

4.1. Loading rate

4.2. Effect of loading rate on Young’s modulus

4.3. Effect of loading rate on compressive rock strength

4.4. Effect of loading rate on tensile rock strength

4.5. Effect of loading rate on shear strength

4.6. Effect of loading rate on rock fracture toughness

4.7. Effect of loading rate on sizes of fragments

4.8. Effect of loading rate on fracture surface characteristics

4.9. Effect of loading rate on energy consumption in rock fracture

4.10. Engineering applications

4.11. Concluding remarks

4.12. Exercises

Chapter 5: Effect of Temperature on Rock Fracture

Abstract

5.1. Thermal, physical, and mechanical properties of rock

5.2. Compressive rock strength

5.3. Tensile strength

5.4. Fracture toughness

5.5. Characteristics of thermal damage

5.6. Rock fragmentation

5.7. Cyclic temperature loading to rock

5.8. Dynamic fracture mechanism of rock

5.9. On applications

5.10. Concluding remarks

5.11. Exercises

Chapter 6: Environmental Effects on Rock Fracture

Abstract

6.1. Water

6.2. Chemical liquids

6.3. Confining pressure

6.4. Cyclic loading

6.5. Concluding remarks

6.6. Exercises

Chapter 7: Rock Drilling and Boring

Abstract

7.1. Methods for rock drilling and boring

7.2. Mechanism of rock breakage

7.3. Loading rate AND temperature

7.4. Discharge of cuttings during drilling and boring

7.5. Deviation

7.6. Operational skills

7.7. Potential to development

7.8. Concluding remarks

7.9. Exercises

Appendix I

Part III: Explosive Donation in a Blast Hole

Chapter 8: Explosives and Detonators

Abstract

8.1. History

8.2. Categories of explosives

8.3. ANFO explosives

8.4. Emulsion explosives

8.5. ANFO–emulsion mixtures, low-density explosives, and propellants

8.6. Initiation of explosives

8.7. Detonators

8.8. Precision in the initiation of detonators

8.9. Charge diameter and VOD

8.10. Matching of explosives and rock mass

8.11. Safety in charging operation

8.12. On the relation between VOD and rock fracture

8.13. Concluding remarks

8.14. Exercises

Chapter 9: Theory of Detonation

Abstract

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Definitions

9.3. CJ detonation theory

9.4. ZND theory

9.5. Direct numerical solution

9.6. Two-dimensional detonation theories

9.7. Equation of state

9.8. Chemical reaction rate

9.9. Rarefaction waves

9.10. Summary

9.11. Exercises

Chapter 10: Single-Hole Blasting

Abstract

10.1. Process of rock blasting in a single hole

10.2. Borehole pressures

10.3. Stress waves close to boreholes

10.4. Borehole expansion

10.5. Gas velocity

10.6. Crushed zone

10.7. Velocity of crack propagation

10.8. Movement of fragments during blasting

10.9. Disturbed zone surrounding a blasthole

10.10. Energy distribution

10.11. Concluding remarks

10.12. Exercises

Part IV: Basic Parameters of Rock Blasting

Chapter 11: Free Surface and Swelling in Blasting

Abstract

11.1. Weakness of rock materials

11.2. Role of free surface

11.3. Dynamic tensile fracture—spalling in rock blasting

11.4. Spalling in the free surface far from explosive charge

11.5. Swelling in blasting

11.6. Creation of free surface and swelling space by blasting

11.7. On applications

11.8. Concluding remarks

11.9. Exercises

Chapter 12: Burden and Spacing

Abstract

12.1. Angle of breakage

12.2. Specific charge

12.3. Diameter of blastholes

12.4. Burden

12.5. Spacing

12.6. Concluding remarks

12.7. Exercises

Chapter 13: Stemming and Charge Length

Abstract

13.1. Effect of stemming on detonation wave and energy

13.2. Role of stemming in blasting

13.3. Example of improved fragmentation by better stemming

13.4. Determining the sizes and material of stemming

13.5. Charge length

13.6. Concluding remarks

13.7. Exercises

Chapter 14: Air Deck and Smooth Blasting

Abstract

14.1. Air deck

14.2. Decoupled charge

14.3. Deck charge

14.4. Principles of smooth blasting and presplit technique

14.5. Smooth blasting

14.6. Presplit blasting

14.7. Special methods in smooth and presplit blasting

14.8. Concluding remarks

14.9. Exercises

Chapter 15: Primer Placement

Abstract

15.1. Wastage of detonation energy

15.2. Primer position and misfires

15.3. Stress wave propagation and stress distribution

15.4. Amplitude of stresses in rock

15.5. Rock fragmentation

15.6. Ore extraction

15.7. Productivity

15.8. Mining safety relevant to brow damage

15.9. Potential economy of improving blasting

15.10. On double-primer placement

15.11. Concluding remarks

15.12. Exercises

Chapter 16: Delay Times

Abstract

16.1. Reasons for a delay time

16.2. Factors to be considered in determining delay time

16.3. Delay time in a single blasthole

16.4. Delay time between two adjacent blastholes

16.5. Delay time between adjacent rows

16.6. Simultaneous initiation in production blasts

16.7. Comments on delay time

16.8. Concluding remarks

16.9. Exercises

Part V: Rock Blasting in Engineering

Chapter 17: Rock Blasting in Open Cut and Tunneling

Abstract

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Open cut blasting in underground mining

17.3. Cut blasting in drifting and tunneling

17.4. Detonators and delay time

17.5. Slashing hole blasting

17.6. Disturbed zone

17.7. Blastholes in roofs and walls

17.8. Bottom and slashing holes

17.9. Quality, safety, and economy

17.10. Concluding remarks

17.11. Exercises

Chapter 18: Rock Blasting in Open Pit Mining

Abstract

18.1. Drilling plan

18.2. Blast plan

18.3. Fragmentation

18.4. Final pit slope

18.5. Safety and environment

18.6. On presplit method and production blasting

18.7. Concluding remarks

18.8. Exercises

Chapter 19: Rock Blasting in Underground Mining

Abstract

19.1. Advantages and disadvantages of sublevel caving

19.2. Drilling and charging plan

19.3. Inclination of rings

19.4. Single- or multiple-ring blasting

19.5. Delay time and initiation sequence

19.6. Open cut and drifting

19.7. Stemming, air deck, and detonator placement

19.8. Back break and brow damage

19.9. Misfires

19.10. Fragmentation, ore recovery, and mining profit

19.11. Safety, environment, and vibration control

19.12. Sublevel-caving blasting in the future

19.13. Concluding remarks

19.14. Exercises

Chapter 20: Numerical Simulation of Rock Blasting

Abstract

20.1. Fracture characteristics of rock

20.2. Process of rock blasting in a blasthole

20.3. Crushing, fracture, and fragmentation

20.4. Shock wave collision

20.5. Stemming

20.6. Malfunction or misfire

20.7. Numerical simulation of detonation

20.8. Numerical modeling of rock blasting

20.9. Concluding remarks

20.10. Exercises

Part VI: Rock Blasting on Economy, Safety, and Vibrations

Chapter 21: Optimum Fragmentation

Abstract

21.1. Effects of fragmentation on mining engineering

21.2. Factors influencing fragmentation

21.3. Definition of optimum fragmentation

21.4. Possibility of optimum fragmentation

21.5. Measures for optimum fragmentation

21.6. Laboratory tests and industry practices on optimum fragmentation

21.7. How to achieve optimum fragmentation

21.8. Concluding remarks

21.9. Exercises

Chapter 22: Effect of Blasting on Engineering Economy

Abstract

22.1. Introduction

22.2. Ore recovery

22.3. Dilution

22.4. Measures for increasing ore recovery

22.5. To increase productivity by blasting

22.6. To reduce fractured zone so as to reduce costs in rock support

22.7. Optimization of fragmentation

22.8. Concluding remarks

22.9. Exercises

Chapter 23: Safety in Rock Engineering

Abstract

23.1. Rock spalling

23.2. Remained roofs

23.3. Seismic events

23.4. Rock fall

23.5. Brow damage

23.6. Shock wave damage in underground mines

23.7. Slope collapse in open pit mines

23.8. Fly rock and air blast in open pit mines

23.9. Rock burst

23.10. Explosives and detonators

23.11. Concluding remarks

23.12. Exercises

Chapter 24: Reduction of Ground Vibrations

Abstract

24.1. Characteristics of blast-induced ground vibrations

24.2. To reduce original stress waves caused by blasting

24.3. To make use of stress wave superposition

24.4. To make ground vibrations damped

24.5. To prevent stress waves from propagating into inhabited area

24.6. Concluding remarks

24.7. Exercises

Chapter 25: Special Blasting Techniques

Abstract

25.1. Demolition blasting

25.2. Reinforcing soft ground by blasting

25.3. Shaped charges and applications

25.4. Well stimulation in oil and gas production

25.5. Explosion welding

25.6. Stump blasting

25.7. Static fragmentation agents

Subject Index

Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-802688-5

For information on all Butterworth Heinemann publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Joe Hayton

Acquisition Editor: André Wolff

Editorial Project Manager: Mariana Kühl Leme

Editorial Project Manager Intern: Ana Claudia Abad Garcia

Production Project Manager: Anusha Sambamoorthy

Designer: Vicky Pearson

Typeset by Thomson Digital

Dedication

Dedicated to my parents, my wife Mei Wang, and my daughters Ying and Anna.

About the Author

Zong-Xian Zhang, PhD, is a Professor of Rock Mechanics at the University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), Norway. He earned a BSci from Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, China, in 1982; MSci from the University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), China, in 1986; PhD from Luleå University of Technology (LTU), Sweden, in 2001. From 1982 to 1983 he did research at Northwestern Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Technology, Baiying, China; from 1986 to 1997 he worked at the USTB as research assistant (1986–88), lecturer (1988–92), and associate professor (1992–97); from 2001 to 2002 he worked at the LTU as Senior Research Engineer; from 2002 to 2013 he worked at the mining company LKAB as Senior Research Engineer; in the year 2013 he joined the UNIS as associate professor and from 2014 as professor. His research covers rock drilling, rock fracture under different loading rates and various temperatures, rock excavation by boring machine, stress waves in rock, rock blasting, sublevel caving, vibration control, and related areas. His publications include two books and 68 articles. By using stress wave, shock wave, and rock fracture theories, he has successfully solved a number of problems and developed several methods in rock blasting, vibration control, and mining production.

Preface

In the year 2005 after three years having worked in the well-known Swedish mining company LKAB, I decided to write this book. The first motivation came from the fact that we had largely reduced the ground vibrations, increased the ore recovery, and improved the underground safety by applying stress wave and rock fracture theories to the production blasts in the Malmberget mine.

The second motivation originated from the fact that it was experience and empirical design rather than science that had dominated rock blasting for many years, even though blasting technology had made great progress in the past. This fact often resulted in low ore recovery and unsatisfactory mining safety. In the Malmberget mine in the years 2003 and 2004, after we changed primer position by means of stress wave theory and rock mechanics, we had increased ore extraction by around 110% on average in a total of 93 production rings. Note that the iron ore in each production ring was valued at approximately one million US dollars at that time. In addition, we had saved a great amount of iron ore by breaking down remained roofs using shock collision theory.

The third motivation was due to the fact that miners generally lacked rock fracture and blasting theories. When they had enough knowledge in rock fracture and blasting, they were very active in accepting and using new techniques. If miners or blasters are given part of the knowledge in this book, I believe their employers will increase a considerable amount of profit every year.

The fourth motivation was that the great potential of rock blasting had not been realized. For example, in the mining industry a huge amount of minerals is lost every year, and one of the main reasons is the experience-dominant blast operation. Taking only iron ore as an example, the ore loss in the mining process is estimated to be 460 million tons per year over the world according to the production data from the year 2010 to 2012, which will be discussed in more detail in the chapter: Effect of Blasting on Engineering Economy. Because blasting is an easily performed operation, if scientifically designed, rock blasting can create a tremendous amount of profit for the mining industry, increase tunneling speed, produce smooth surfaces of tunnels and slopes, reduce the costs of rock support, improve the safety in underground operations, reduce blast-caused vibrations, and diminish seismic events. Blasting can also be used to demolish abandoned buildings, stimulate petroleum or gas production, cut heavy concrete and metallic structures, weld big parts of metallic components, reinforce soft ground, and perform rock fragmentation under water, among other uses.

The fifth motivation was that in the field of rock fracture and blasting the scientists, engineers, college students, blasters, and even miners need a book which can cover stress waves, shock waves, rock fracture, rock drilling, explosive detonation, engineering blasting in mining and tunneling, numerical simulation of rock blasting, optimum fragmentation, vibration control, and blast-related economy and safety, in addition to scientific determination of basic blast parameters such as burden, spacing, specific charge, stemming, air deck, and decoupled charge.

On the basis of these five motivations, this book includes all of the contents mentioned. Readers will find that stress wave and shock wave theories are frequently used in many chapters, implying that readers can conveniently learn and apply these theories as presented in the book. In order to perform either rock fracture more efficiently or rock support more effectively, rock fracture characteristics are presented in the chapter: Rock Fracture and Rock Strength, and effects of loading rate, temperature, water, and cyclic loading on rock fracture are described in the chapters: Effect of Loading Rate on Rock Fracture; Effect of Temperature on Rock Fracture; Environmental Effects on Rock Fracture. The rest of the chapters deal with rock drilling, explosives, detonation theory, single-hole blasting, free surface, burden and spacing, stemming, air deck, primer placement, delay time, blasting in open cut, surface blasting, underground blasting, numerical simulation, optimum fragmentation, blast-related economy, safety, vibration control, and special blasting. After the text of each chapter there are a number of exercises which have been used several times in my courses, and they are welcomed by the students.

The purpose of this book is to provide a comprehensive package of knowledge, especially concerning stress waves, shock waves, rock fracture, and detonation, for scientists, engineers, students, blasters, and miners in the field of rock engineering. My longtime industrial experience indicates that there are still a great number of problems in rock engineering which can be solved by using the theories presented in this book. My successful practices in the mining industry make me confident that by means of stress wave and rock fracture theories mineral resource recovery can be largely increased, economy in mining or other rock engineering can be improved, safety can be better, and blast-related damage to the environment can be reduced.

Now that my writing of this book is approaching completion, I would like to thank all of the people who have given me various kinds of support in the long process. I am grateful to Professor Per-Arne Lindqvist for his encouragement and suggestions, to Dr Ruilin Yang for his valuable comments and modifications to part of the manuscript, to Professor Shaoquan Kou for his review and suggestions on part of the manuscript, and to Dr Changping Yi and Mr Lingen Jiang for their review to part of the manuscript. I thank Professor Charlie C. Li, Professor Jun Yang, Professor Nianhua Yang, Dr Matthias Wimmer, Mr Rajib Ghosh, Mr Liyuan Chi, Mr Anders Johnsson, Mr Anders Nordqvist, Mr Mats Stålnake, Mr Shahram Mozaffari, and Dr Robert Patterson and Ms Paula Blamberg from Atlas Copco for their help in photographs. My gratitude goes to Professor Finn Ouchterlony, Dr Changshou Sun, Professor Peter Moser, Professor Martin Braithwaite, Dr Shulin Nie, Dr Ewan Sellers, and Dr Jason Furtney for private communications on some topics related to detonation and dynamic rock fracture. I am grateful to my colleagues in LKAB and miners in the Malmberget mine for their various types of help and support. I thank Professor José A. Sanchidrián, Professor Wen-Bo Lu, Dr Peng Yan, and three other anonymous reviewers for their recommendation to publish the book. And last but not least, I would like to thank Mr André Gerhard Wolff, Ms Mariana Leme Kuhl, Ms Ana Claudia Garcia, and Anusha Sambamoorthy for their efficient cooperation in publishing the book.

Zong-Xian Zhang

Longyearbyen

September, 2015

Part I

Stress Waves and Shock Waves

Chapter 1: Stress Waves

Chapter 2: Shock Waves

Chapter 1

Stress Waves

Abstract

Stress waves can be found in rock drilling, rock blasting, mining-induced seismicity, and other dynamic events. By means of stress wave theory, we can improve the quality and productivity of current rock drilling, rock blasting, and mining production; reduce natural resource loss; improve fieldwork safety; and reduce the damage to the environment caused by blasting. This chapter introduces the basic knowledge of stress waves, particularly one-dimensional stress waves. It covers various kinds of stress waves, wave reflection and transmission on a free surface or an interface, one-dimensional wave propagation, impact of two elastic bars, propagation of elastic waves in two and three bars, wave superposition, spalling theory, split Hopkinson bars, characteristic impedances of various materials, and wave attenuation and dispersion in rocks.

Keywords

stress waves

spalling

attenuation

dispersion

wave reflection

transmission

split Hopkinson bars

one-dimensional waves

Chapter Outline

1.1 Coordinates, Wave Velocity, and Particle Velocity 4

1.1.1 Coordinates 4

1.1.2 Wave Velocity and Particle Velocity 4

1.2 Category of Stress Waves in Solids 5

1.2.1 Body Waves 5

1.2.2 Surface Waves 6

1.2.3 Stress Waves Relevant to Stress–Strain Relation of Materials 8

1.2.4 Other Names of Waves 8

1.3 Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves 9

1.3.1 Reflection of Elastic Waves on a Free Surface 9

1.3.2 Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves at an Interface Between Two Media 10

1.3.3 Stress Waves from Rock Blasting 10

1.4 Theory of One-Dimensional Elastic Stress Waves 10

1.4.1 Wave Equation in One-Dimensional Condition 10

1.4.2 Solution of Wave Equation 12

1.5 Stress Wave Analysis Using a Lagrangian Diagram 14

1.5.1 Lagrangian Diagram for Elastic Waves 14

1.5.2 Lagrangian Diagram for Elastic–Plastic Loading Waves 15

1.6 Impact of Two Elastic Bars 17

1.6.1 General Case 17

1.6.2 Special Cases 18

1.7 Energy in an Impact System 19

1.7.1 Relation Between Kinetic Energy and Strain Energy 19

1.7.2 Energy Transmission 20

1.8 Propagation of Elastic Waves in Two Different Materials 20

1.8.1 General Case 20

1.8.2 Special Cases 22

1.9 Wave Reflection on a Rigid Wall and on a Free Surface 22

1.9.1 On a Rigid Wall 22

1.9.2 On a Free Surface 22

1.10 Propagation of Elastic Waves in Three Different Materials 23

1.11 Superposition of Elastic Stress Waves 24

1.11.1 Superposition of Two Compressive Elastic Stress Waves 24

1.11.2 Superposition of One Tensile Wave and One Compressive Wave 24

1.11.3 Superposition of Two P-Waves from Two Blastholes 25

1.12 Spalling Caused by Stress Wave Loading 25

1.12.1 A Triangular Wave Reflected from a Free Surface 26

1.12.2 Spalling Caused by a Triangular Wave 27

1.13 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar System 29

1.14 Attenuation and Dispersion of Stress Waves 30

1.14.1 Factors Influencing Attenuation and Dispersion 30

1.14.2 Wave Attenuation Measured at Laboratory 32

1.14.3 Wave Attenuation and Dispersion Measured in the Field 32

1.15 Separation of Two Waves from a Blast 32

1.16 Sonic Velocities and Densities of Different Mediums 33

1.17 Concluding Remarks 34

1.17.1 Velocities of P- and S-Waves 34

1.17.2 Velocities of Body and Surface Waves 36

1.17.3 Stress Waves and Shock Waves 36

1.17.4 Stress Wave Reflection from a Free Surface 36

1.17.5 Reflection and Transmission of Stress Waves Through an Interface 36

1.17.6 Stresses in One-Dimensional Elastic Waves 37

1.17.7 Impact of Two Elastic Bars 37

1.17.8 Elastic Waves Propagating in Two Bars 37

1.17.9 Elastic Waves to a Rigid Wall and a Free Surface 37

1.17.10 Spalling Induced by Tensile Stress Waves 37

1.17.11 Attenuation and Dispersion of Stress Waves in Rocks 37

1.18 Exercises 37

References 38

In rock engineering, stress waves can be caused by rock drilling, rock blasting, mining-induced seismicity, and other dynamic events. By means of stress wave theory, we can improve the quality and productivity of current rock drilling, rock blasting, and mining production; reduce natural resource loss in mining; improve fieldwork safety; and reduce the damage to the environment caused by blasting. This chapter will in brief introduce one-dimensional stress waves developed by a number of great pioneers such as Stokes, Poisson, Rayleigh, Kelvin, and others. Stress wave theory in more detail can be found in other books [1–3].

1.1. Coordinates, wave velocity, and particle velocity

1.1.1. Coordinates

In the study of stress waves and shock waves, we need a coordinate system. There are two coordinate systems: Eulerian and Lagrangian systems. If we look at a moving object (eg, the train as well as the person who is running on the train in Fig. 1.1) from a fixed position O outside the object, and take the fixed position O as the origin of a coordinate system, we refer to this coordinate system as Eulerian coordinates. However, if we observe a moving object (eg, the person in Fig. 1.1) from a fixed position O* (on the train) that is in another moving object (the train), and take the fixed position O* as the origin of a coordinate system, such a system is referred to as Lagrangian coordinates. Fig. 1.1 shows both Eulerian coordinates and Lagrangian coordinates. In stress wave study, Lagrangian coordinates are often employed.

Figure 1.1   Eulerian coordinates and Lagrangian coordinates.

1.1.2. Wave Velocity and Particle Velocity

Fig. 1.2 shows six elastic cubes lined up together on a table with the space S equal to their every side. It is assumed that there is no friction between the cubes and the surface of the table. In the beginning or t = 0, the positions of these cubes are in the x-axis. We assume that the space S and each side of the cubes are 10 mm. Now we start to push Cube 1, at a constant speed, toward Cube 2. We continue to push until the last cube (Cube 6) is exactly contacted as shown by column t5. The positions of these six cubes at four different times are indicated by the columns t1 to t4. Let the interval between two neighboring columns such as t1 and t2 be equal to 2 ms. At the moment t. So its velocity is 50 mm/10 ms = 5 m/s. Let these cubes represent the particles in a material; then we find that the particle velocity is 5 m/s. At the same time, the last cube (Cube 6) is exactly contacted when Cube 1 has moved a distance x, twice the particle velocity. In conclusion, the particle velocity and the wave velocity are different, and the wave velocity is always much greater than the particle velocity.

Figure 1.2   Particle velocity and wave velocity.

1.2. Category of stress waves in solids

All stress waves can be divided into two groups: body waves and surface waves. Within a solid body there is only one kind of stress wave—body waves. Body waves include primary waves, that is, P-waves, and secondary waves, that is, S-waves. On and near the surfaces of a solid body there is another kind of stress wave—surface waves.

1.2.1. Body Waves

1.2.1.1. P-Waves

P-waves are shortened from primary waves, and they are also called longitudinal waves or dilatational waves. P-waves involve no rotation travel with a wave velocity

(1.1)

where E is the Young’s modulus, ν is Poisson’s ratio, and ρ is the density of the medium in which a P-wave propagates. This equation is valid for three-dimensional conditions, and it can be found from other textbooks on elasticity or stress waves. P-wave propagation and particle displacement have the same or opposite directions. Fig. 1.3 shows a compressive P-wave that propagates from left to right in a spring–ball chain. In the beginning we knock the first ball; then it catches up with the second ball, and then the second ball will catch up with the third ball. As soon as the third ball is touched, we stop the knock to the first ball (but do not remove the hands). This moment is shown by t = t1, where the first three balls move closely together. After a certain time when t = tn, the P-wave dealing with the movement of three balls has arrived at the position indicated by the last row of the chain in Fig. 1.3. We see that the particles (balls) and the wave move in same direction. However, when the P-wave is tensile, the direction of the wave and that of the particles will be opposite. For example, if we suddenly pull the first ball toward us, the particles/balls move to us but the wave goes in the opposite direction. From Fig. 1.3 we may see that in this spring–ball chain, when the wave arrives, only three balls are stressed, but the others either keep their original undisturbed states or attain new undisturbed states. The curves in Fig. 1.3 show the waves corresponding to the disturbed balls. This is a big difference compared with a static mechanics problem in which the forces in the left and right sides of the chain are always equal to each other.

Figure 1.3   A P-wave propagates in a spring–ball chain.

1.2.1.2. S-Waves

S-waves are shortened from secondary waves, often called shear waves or distortional waves. Similar to Eq. 1.1 under three-dimensional conditions, the velocity cs of S-waves is determined by

(1.2)

The direction of S-wave propagation is vertical to particle displacement, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Remember that an S-wave can travel in solids, but not in gases and liquids such as water. For instance, if there are no springs between the balls in Fig. 1.4, an S-wave cannot propagate in the ball chain. In rock mass, joints and cavities greatly influence the propagation of an S-wave. If the joints are perpendicular to the propagating direction of an S-wave, the S-wave will largely decrease or even disappear with increasing travel distance in the rock mass.

Figure 1.4   An S-wave travels in a spring–ball chain.

According to Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2, we obtain:

(1.3)

This equation can be used to estimate the ratio of the S-wave velocity to P-wave velocity of a rock mass. As ν = 0.25, which is suitable for many rocks, we get cs/cp = 0.577, indicating that an S-wave is much slower than a P-wave in the rocks. In other words, the difference between the P-wave velocity and the S-wave velocity is very large. This is useful in solving stress wave problems.

1.2.2. Surface Waves

Surface waves include Rayleigh waves, Love waves, and Stoneley waves.

1.2.2.1. Rayleigh Waves

Rayleigh waves, predicted by Rayleigh [4], are one type of surface wave generated by the interaction of P- and S-waves on a free surface. In isotropic solids, when traveling along a surface, Rayleigh waves cause the surface particles to move in ellipses in planes normal to the surface. Rayleigh waves have the following characteristics:

• The motions of Rayleigh waves decrease exponentially in amplitude with an increasing depth from the surface.

• Rayleigh waves are confined near the surface, so they decay more slowly with an increasing distance on the surface than body waves.

• The particle motion of Rayleigh waves is larger than that of body waves, so the surface waves tend to cause more damage.

• The velocity of Rayleigh waves is slightly less than that of S-waves.

Because of the aforementioned characteristics, Rayleigh waves are widely used in nondestructive testing to detect the defects in solid materials. Similarly, they are employed to characterize the Earth’s interior such as oil deposits.

Since the velocity of Rayleigh waves is slightly less than that of S-waves, we have a general relationship as follows:

(1.4)

where cR is the velocity of Rayleigh waves. Note that the ratio of the Rayleigh wave velocity to the S-wave velocity varies with ν. For example, as ν = 0.25, cR/cs = 0.9554 [1]. The difference in the velocities of P-, S-, and Rayleigh waves is also useful in the warning system for earthquakes. Since the structural damage from earthquakes is often caused by Rayleigh waves, the people at the epicenter actually have a certain time to take action to a certain extent. For example, if the distance between the focus of an earthquake and the epicenter is 40 km, and

, then the people at the epicenter have a time of 6.5 s to escape or take some measures from the time when they first feel the P-waves to the moment when the Rayleigh waves arrive. Here it is assumed that cp = 5000 m/s. Since the collapse of a building due to an earthquake takes time, the actual time for escaping should be longer than 6.5 s in this example.

1.2.2.2. Love Waves

Love waves are predicted by Love [5] mathematically, and they are observed when there is a low-velocity layer overlying a high-velocity layer. Love waves induce horizontal movement of the earth during an earthquake and travel with a slower velocity than P- or S-waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. Similar to Rayleigh waves, Love waves decay more slowly with an increasing distance along the surface direction than do body waves. Therefore, like Rayleigh waves, Love waves are destructive in an earthquake.

1.2.2.3. Stoneley Waves

Stoneley waves were discovered by Stoneley [6] and they propagate along a solid–solid interface. A Stoneley wave is a high-amplitude surface wave with maximum amplitude at the interface. The amplitude then decreases exponentially away from the interface. A Stoneley wave moves along the interface, but particles move in the direction perpendicular to the interface.

1.2.3. Stress Waves Relevant to Stress–Strain Relation of Materials

Broadly, stress waves include elastic waves, plastic waves, and shock waves according to the stress–strain relation of a material in which stress waves propagate. In many cases, the strain produced in a material is directly proportional to the stress applied on the material. This linear behavior holds until a point named the elastic limit or yield point. At or over the elastic limit, the material will not come back to its exact original shape if it is released. If a material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, plastic deformation will be caused. Under the plastic deformation, the material behaves in a way that is partly plastic and partly elastic. For most materials, their plastic deformation limit is much greater than their elastic one. Above this plastic limit, the material exhibits plastic behavior and behaves like a fluid. This is the region relevant to shock waves, for example, induced by explosion. On the basis of the aforementioned description, we will briefly explain elastic waves, plastic waves, and shock waves in the following.

1.2.3.1. Elastic Waves

The stress waves propagating in a medium which has a linear stress–strain relation are called elastic waves. In rock engineering, the stress waves propagating in a drill rod/pipe and drill bit are typical elastic waves; the waves in rock masses induced by seismic events are approximately elastic waves; the waves induced by blasting are generally elastic waves in the rock mass, except for the area close to the blastholes.

1.2.3.2. Plastic Waves

Plastic waves are produced when a medium is stressed in the elastic–plastic deformation range mentioned earlier. A plastic wave usually travels with a lower velocity than an elastic wave.

1.2.3.3. Shock Waves

A shock wave is produced when a material is stressed far beyond its elastic limit. A detonation wave produced by explosives in rock blasting is a typical shock wave. The velocity of a shock wave increases with an increasing particle velocity. This is one of the big differences between a shock wave and an elastic wave whose velocity is a constant. Shock waves will be discussed in more detail in chapter: Shock Waves.

1.2.4. Other Names of Waves

1.2.4.1. Seismic Waves and Vibration Waves

When an earthquake occurs, both body waves—P- and S-waves—are produced and they propagate from the focus of the earthquake to the earth’s surfaces. When the S-waves reach the surfaces, as described previously, surface waves such as Rayleigh waves will be induced in addition to other waves by the reflection of the body waves on the earth’s surface. The measured waves either on or under the earth’s surface are usually called seismic waves. Seismic waves are generally considered to be elastic. Seismic waves can be either body waves or surface waves or both together. A mining activity may also cause small-scale earthquakes, often called seismic events. In this case, the measured waves are called seismic waves.

When rock blasting is done close to an inhabited area, the ground vibrations induced by blasting have to be controlled. In this case, the stress waves induced by blasting are often measured by various kinds of monitors installed in some places such as the basements of houses. The measured waves may be called vibration waves. The vibration waves may be either particle velocity waves or acceleration waves, depending on the monitors used. Like seismic waves, vibration waves are approximately elastic.

1.2.4.2. Taylor Waves, Rarefaction Waves, and Unloading Waves

When a shock wave travels in a medium, part of the medium is highly pressed at a certain time. During this time, the pressed part is being shocked; but immediately after the shock wave passes over, the medium in that part must release. This causes a wave named a Taylor wave. A Taylor wave is also called a rarefaction wave or an unloading wave. We will discuss them in chapter: Shock Waves.

In brief, stress waves in a medium can be divided into two groups: body waves traveling within the medium and surface waves appearing in or near a free surface. Stress waves may be sorted into elastic waves, plastic waves, and shock waves according to the stress–strain relation of the medium in which stress waves travel. Shock waves are in many aspects different from elastic waves and plastic (or elastic–plastic) waves, so we will separate shock waves from stress waves from now on in this book. In other words, when we talk about stress waves, the waves may be elastic, plastic, or elastic–plastic waves. These waves can be body waves or surface waves. When we mention shock waves, they must be the waves that occur in much higher pressure or stress than the elastic limit, that have a vertical (or nearly vertical) front, that have a higher wave velocity when particle velocity increases, and that have entropy change.

1.3. Reflection and transmission of elastic waves

As a light arrives at a free boundary or at an interface between two transparent media, it is reflected and refracted. Similarly, when a stress wave comes to a free surface and an interface, it also causes reflection and refraction. In the study of stress waves, the refraction is usually called transmission, and a refracted wave is often named a transmitted wave. The reflection and transmission of a stress wave follows the basic principles of light on a surface or through an interface, such as Snell’s law in physics. A detailed description of wave reflection and refraction can be found in other books on stress waves [1,3]. In the following we will give a brief summary on wave reflection and transmission on a free surface and at an interface.

1.3.1. Reflection of Elastic Waves on a Free Surface

1.3.1.1. A P-Wave Incident on a Free Surface

As shown in Fig. 1.5a, when a P-wave propagates to the free surface, a reflected P-wave and a reflected S-wave are produced. The angles between these waves and the x-axis are αPI, αPR, and βPR, respectively. In general, αPI = αPR and βPR is related to the velocities of the P- and S-waves.

Figure 1.5   Reflection of an incident wave at free surface.

(a) P-wave; (b) S-wave.

), there is no reflected S-wave, and the amplitude of the reflected P-wave is equal to that of the incident wave with a phase change of π on reflection at the boundary.

1.3.1.2. An S-Wave Incident on a Free Surface

As shown in Fig. 1.5b, when an S-wave propagates to the free surface, a reflected S-wave and a reflected P-wave are caused. In this case, we have βSI = βSR and the angle αSR is related to the velocities of the P- and S-waves.

At normal incidence (βSI = 0), no P-wave is reflected, and the amplitude of the reflected S-wave is equal to that of the incident S-wave with a phase change of π on reflection at the boundary.

1.3.2. Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves at an Interface Between Two Media

1.3.2.1. Reflection and Transmission of an Incident P-Wave on a Plane Interface

When an elastic wave, either a P-wave or an S-wave, arrives at a slip–free interface, four waves are generated. Two of these are transmitted into the second medium, and two are reflected back. Consider a P-wave traveling parallel to the x–y plane and incident on the boundary at an angle αPI, and let the angles at which the P-wave is reflected and transmitted be αPR and αPT respectively, while S-waves are reflected and transmitted at angles βPR and βPT respectively, see Fig. 1.6a. In this case we have αPI = αPR. In addition, angles αPT, βPR, and βPT are related to the velocities of these waves in the two media.

Figure 1.6   Reflection and transmission of incident P-wave (a) and incident S-wave (b) at a plane interface.

In the case of normal incidence, αPI and other angles are all zero, so only two P-waves, one reflected and one transmitted, are generated.

1.3.2.2. Reflection and Transmission of an Incident S-Wave on a Plane Interface

When an S-wave travels to an interface between two media, four waves are produced, as shown in Fig. 1.6b. In this case, we have βSI = βSR. The other angles are related to the velocities of the P- and S-waves in the two media.

For normal incidence, no P-waves are generated. Only one reflected S-wave and one transmitted S-wave are produced.

1.3.3. Stress Waves from Rock Blasting

When rock blasting occurs under a surface, blasting causes two body waves—a P-wave and an S-wave. When both waves obliquely propagate to the free surface, as shown in Fig. 1.7, at least four waves are caused: (1) a reflected P-wave (PP-wave) due to the incident P-wave; (2) a reflected S-wave (SP-wave) due to the incident P-wave; (3) a reflected P-wave (PS-wave) due to the incident S-wave; (4) a reflected S-wave (SS-wave) due to the incident S-wave; and (5) the Rayleigh waves. If the surface has two layers of media, Love waves or Stoneley waves may be induced.

Figure 1.7   Blasting-caused stress waves in the rock mass and near the surface.

In the case of normal incidence, only two waves, a PP-wave and an SS-wave, are induced due to incident P- and S-waves, as shown in Fig. 1.7. In rock engineering, many problems can be simplified into a one-dimensional wave problem in which only a normal incidence is considered.

1.4. Theory of one-dimensional elastic stress waves

1.4.1. Wave Equation in One-Dimensional Condition

In the following the propagation of elastic stress waves along a cylindrical bar, that is, in one-dimensional condition, will be described. It is assumed that: (1) only the deformations in longitudinal direction are considered, while the deformations in torsional and lateral directions are neglected; (2) the lengths of the waves are large, compared with the diameter of the bar; (3) each plane cross-section of the bar remains plane during the motion; and (4) the stress over the cross-section is uniform. On the basis of these assumptions, we may obtain the equation of motion directly.

Consider a small element I–II of length ∆x and let the cross-sectional area of the bar be A; see Fig. 1.8. The coordinate is shown in Fig. 1.8, which indicates that a wave propagates to the direction of increasing x. If the stress on the face passing through I is σ, the stress on the other face will be given by σ + (∂σ/∂x)∆x, and if the displacement of the element is given by u, according to the Newton’s second law of motion we have:

Figure 1.8   Stresses acting on element of bar in longitudinal motion.

(1.5)

where ρ is the density of the bar.

Since the ratio of the stress σ to the strain ∂u/∂x . Eq. 1.5 may be written as:

(1.6)

This is the wave equation in one-dimensional condition. The corresponding velocity of the longitudinal waves along the bar is:

(1.7)

Note that cL is not the same as the P-wave velocity cp in three-dimensional (or unbounded) condition in Eq. 1.1. Eq. 1.7 can be obtained from Eq. 1.1 if ν is given to zero, that is, the lateral deformation is neglected. In the aforementioned description, we take a tensile stress as an example. If the stress is compressive, we will get the same equation as Eq. 1.6.

1.4.2. Solution of Wave Equation

The solution of Eq. 1.6 may be written as:

(1.8)

where F and f are arbitrary functions depending on the initial conditions. The function f corresponds to a wave traveling in the direction of increasing x, while the function F corresponds to a wave traveling in the opposite direction. Eq. 1.6 will apply equally for the bars of any uniform cross-section.

The aforementioned treatment is approximate due to those assumptions when the wave equation is derived. In reality, there are more or less lateral contractions and expansions which will give rise to a nonuniform distribution of stress across the sections of the bar, and plane transverse sections will no longer be plane. But the effect of this lateral motion in cylindrical bars can be ignored if the lengths of the actual waves are much longer than the diameter of the bar.

Now we consider a wave traveling in the direction of increasing x:

(1.9)

If we differentiate Eq. 1.9 with respect to x and t, respectively, we have:

(1.10)

and

(1.11)

where f′ . Thus, from Eqs. 1.10 and 1.11, we get

, we have

(1.12a)

Eq. 1.12a shows a linear relation between the stress and the particle velocity at any point. Note that the product ρcL of the density ρ and the wave velocity cL is a material parameter, called characteristic impedance. Note also that σ > 0 corresponds to a tensile stress, while σ < 0 corresponds to a compressive stress. Eq. 1.12a indicates that in the condition that the wave moves in the direction of increasing x, as shown in Fig. 1.8, if the particle velocity is greater than zero, that is, positive, the corresponding stress σ is negative, that is, compressive. If the particle velocity is negative, that is, particles move in the direction of decreasing x (the wave still moves in the direction of increasing x), the stress is positive or tensile.

For a wave traveling in the direction of decreasing x, we have:

Using similar analysis in Eq. 1.12a, we get

(1.12b)

Eq. 1.12b indicates that if the particle velocity is greater than zero, or particles move in the direction of increasing x, the corresponding stress σ is positive, that is, tensile. It is true since the wave moves to the direction of decreasing x, opposite to the particle-moving direction. If the particle velocity is negative, that is, particles move in the direction of decreasing x, the stress is negative or compressive.

In practice, as a compressive elastic wave moves to the direction of increasing x and when it travels to a free surface, the compressive wave is reflected. The reflected wave can be taken as a wave moving to the direction of decreasing x, and it is a tensile wave. When initial particle velocity υ0 and initial stress σ0 are not zero, Eq. 1.12a can be expressed by

(1.13a)

for a compressive wave traveling in the direction of increasing x. Here σ and υ are stress and particle velocity, respectively. Similarly, Eq. 1.12b can be written as

(1.13b)

for a tensile wave in the direction of decreasing x. When initial velocity υ0 and stress σ0 are zero, Eqs. 1.13a and 1.13b can be expressed by

(1.13c)

where the sign − is for the wave to the direction of increasing x, while + is for the wave to the direction of decreasing x. Note that a tensile stress was taken as positive in the previous description on the wave equation (Fig. 1.8). Now let’s see a simple example: As a compressive elastic wave travels to the direction of increasing x in Eq. 1.13c. When the compressive wave is reflected from a free face, that is, the end of the rod, a tensile wave is formed and it travels in the direction of decreasing xin Eq. 1.13c. Bear in mind that Eq. 1.13c is very simple but very useful in practice. In one-dimensional elastic stress waves, the following relations are also useful:

(1.14a)

(1.14b)

(1.14c)

(1.14d)

Now let us see how to use Eq. 1.13c to calculate stress under one-dimensional condition by an example in the following:

One student strikes a very long steel bar with a hammer. Both the bar and the hammer are cylinders with a same diameter much smaller than the length of the bar. The known conditions of the bar are that the maximum particle velocity is 5 m/s; the density of the bar is 7.8 g/cm³; the sonic speed of the bar is 5100 m/s. The task is to calculate the maximum stress caused in the bar.

To solve this problem, we need a coordinate system first. Let us choose the Lagrangian system and set the origin at the end of the bar on which the hammer impacts. The x-axis is along the bar. Since the bar is very long compared with its diameter, this can be taken as a one-dimensional elastic wave problem. Because the stress wave caused by the impact of the hammer is a compressive wave that propagates to the direction of increasing x, Eq. 1.13c with the negative sign − should be used to calculate the maximum stress, as follows:

Obviously, the impact-induced stress is compressive. This example indicates that it is very easy to realize a very high load to an object by dynamic or impact loading methods, compared with static or quasi-static loading methods. Note that the hammer speed is always different from the particle velocity in the bar.

1.5. Stress wave analysis using a Lagrangian diagram

A Lagrangian diagram is an effective method for stress wave analysis. A detailed description of the diagram can be found in other publications such as the book by Wang [3]. By using some simple examples, we will show how to use this method.

1.5.1. Lagrangian Diagram for Elastic Waves

Assume that in a half-infinitive long rod shown in Fig. 1.9 a triangular form of elastic wave propagates into the rod from the left. Since stress, strain, and particle velocity all have a linear relation to each other as shown in Eq. 1.14, we can determine the stress, strain, and particle velocity at any section or at any time according to their initial parameters.

Figure 1.9   Lagrangian diagram.

(a) Incident wave; (b) the coordinate system x–t of the rod; (c) the wave at the cross-section of x = x1; (d) the wave in the rod when t = t1.

As shown in Fig. 1.9, in the beginning (t = 0) the wave front reaches the left end of the rod. The line OA in Fig. 1.9b represents the position of the wave front during its propagation in the rod. The slope of OA is related to the velocity of the wave, and is equal to 1/cL. For elastic waves the wave velocity in a material is constant, so the velocities corresponding to all of the points 1, 2, and 3 in the wave are the same, and the straight lines going through these points have the same slope as line OA. Thus we can directly determine the wave at any cross-section of the rod and the wave at any time. Fig. 1.9d shows the wave at t = t1 along the rod. Let us see how this is made now. At the end of the rod, that is, x = 0 in Fig. 1.9b, and when t = t1, the particle velocity (or strain or stress) is equal to the value pointed by the dashed line at t = t1 in Fig. 1.9a. This value is shown in the vertical axis of Fig. 1.9d. At point 2 in the line t = t1 in Fig. 1.9b we draw a vertical straight dashed line down to the rod in Fig. 1.9d. The particle velocity at the cross-section in which the vertical dashed line goes through number 2 can be found as follows: From the number 2 on the solid line t = t1 and along the slope (a solid line through 2), go down to τ2 on the vertical axis t in Fig. 1.9b, and then along the horizontal dashed line pointed to 2 in Fig. 1.9a, where we can find the particle velocity we want. Similarly, we may determine the particle velocities at other cross-sections such as point 1 and the front of the wave in Fig. 1.9d. In the same way as described before, we can determine the particle velocity wave at the cross-section x = x1. This is shown in Fig. 1.9c. The wave propagation at different cross-sections is often useful in solving an elastic wave problem. Fig. 1.10 shows the wave propagation at two sections x1 and x2, and the propagation at two different respective times. For a one-dimensional elastic wave, its wave form (ie, its length, amplitude, etc.) will not change during its propagation, as shown by Fig. 1.10, if its attenuation and dispersion are ignorable.

Figure 1.10   Propagation of a triangular elastic wave in a long rod.

(a) At two sections x1 and x2; (b) at two different times tm and tn.

1.5.2. Lagrangian Diagram for Elastic–Plastic Loading Waves

When stresses are over the elastic limit, the deformation of the medium becomes plastic, and the stress waves in this condition are plastic waves. Theoretical analysis shows that the Lagrangian diagram mentioned earlier is valid for plastic loading waves, too [3]. However, plastic loading waves and plastic unloading waves are different from each other because they travel with different speeds. In the following we will discuss the Lagrangian diagram concerning plastic loading waves.

For an elastic–plastic wave, its waveform varies during propagation because its wave speed varies when deformation turns to plastic from elastic. Since the velocity of a plastic wave depends on the density of the medium and on the tangent of the stress–strain relation of the material, we will discuss two cases: (1) the tangent of the stress σ-strain ɛ relation decreases with increasing strains; (2) the tangent increases with increasing strains. Both cases are shown in Fig. 1.11. We assume that the initial elastic–plastic waves are in the left side of Fig. 1.12. The elastic limit of a material is Y in Fig. 1.11 and υY in Fig. 1.12. When stress is increased from zero to Y or particle velocity from zero to υY, the deformation is elastic and therefore the wave speed is constant, as shown by the parallel lines (eg, lines OA and τ2B) in Fig. 1.12. This part is represented by curve OB′. When stress is greater than Y, the deformation becomes plastic. The plastic deformation region is shown by curve B′C′D′, which consists of two parts—B′C′ and C′D′. In the B′C′ part, the plastic wave speed varies with stress (or strain or particle velocity) and depends on the stress–strain relation of the material. In the C′D′ part, because the particle velocity is constant the speed of the plastic wave does not change, which is represented by the parallel lines (eg, lines τ4C and τ6D) in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.11   Two types of elastic–plastic materials.

.

Figure 1.12   Lagrangian diagram for elastic–plastic loading waves.

(a) Case A—plastic wave velocity decreases with increasing strains; (b) Case B—plastic wave velocity increases with increasing strains.

Now we discuss Case A. The wave velocity corresponding to plastic deformation in the B′C′ part decreases with increasing strains, meaning that the wave velocity related to high amplitude of the wave is smaller than that related to low amplitude. As a result, the wave becomes longer during propagation, that is, it is divergent. This is shown in Fig. 1.12a. The wave at section x1 is shown by the solid curve in the right side of Fig. 1.12a. This wave is markedly longer than the original wave in the left side of Fig. 1.12a.

For Case B, the wave velocity corresponding to plastic deformation in the B′C′ part increases with increasing strains, meaning that the wave velocity related to high amplitude of the wave is greater than that related to low amplitude. As a result, the plastic wave becomes steeper and steeper, as shown in the curve from 2′ to 4′ in the right side of Fig. 1.12b. In addition, the total wave length becomes shorter, and finally a shock wave emerges from such a plastic wave. This kind of plastic wave is called convergent wave. The original elastic–plastic wave is shown in the left side of Fig. 1.12b.

All in all, when the boundary conditions and stress–strain relation of a material vary, the length and waveform of an elastic–plastic wave will change, too.

1.6. Impact of two elastic bars

1.6.1. General Case

There are two elastic bars 1 and 2, as shown in Fig. 1.13. Assume that the two bars have an equal cross-sectional size, their impedances are ρ1c1 and ρ2c2, their initial stresses are zero, and their initial particle velocities are υ1 and υ. After bar 2 is impacted by bar 1 coaxially, a right-going wave (to the direction of increasing x) will travel in bar 2 and a left-going wave (to the direction of decreasing x) in bar 1. On the contact boundary between the two bars the particle velocities must equate (continuity condition must be satisfied), and the stresses equate (action and reaction condition must be satisfied), too. According to Eq. 1.13c, the stress wave in bar 1 travels to the direction of decreasing x, so we have

Figure 1.13   Impact of two elastic bars.

(1.15a)

and the stress wave in bar 2 travels to the direction of increasing x, and we get

(1.15b)

Solving these two equations, we can get the particle velocity υ and stress σ in the bars after impact:

(1.16a)

(1.16b)

, we always have σ < 0, that is, the stress is always compressive.

1.6.2. Special Cases

Now let us discuss some special cases according to Eq. 1.16.

1.6.2.1. Case 1: An Elastic Bar Impacts on a Rigid Wall

, we have υ, a compressive wave. This case is shown in Fig. 1.14a, and it is similar to some practical examples. For instance, when a rifle bullet hits a tank, if the impedance of the tank is infinitive or extremely high, the bullet may not penetrate into the tank. Similarly, when a rock is struck by a drill rod, if the impedance of the rock is much higher than that of the drill rod, there will be no penetration into the rock.

Figure 1.14   Impact of two bars.

(a) An elastic bar impacts on a rigid one; (b) a rigid bar impacts on an elastic bar; (c) an elastic bar impacts another elastic bar which stands still; (d) a hard bar impacts a soft bar; (e) a soft bar impacts a hard bar.

1.6.2.2. Case 2: A Rigid Bar Impacts on an Elastic Bar

. This case is shown in Fig. 1.14b and it is similar to piling. The striker in piling must be harder than the pile. If so, the pile can be driven into the ground.

1.6.2.3. Case 3: An Elastic Bar Impacts Another Elastic Bar Which Stands Still

, as shown in . This is similar to an elastic bar impacting another elastic bar, which stands still. In stress wave experiments like Hopkinson pressure bar tests, this result is often used.

1.6.2.4. Case 4: A Hard Bar Impacts a Soft Bar

. This case is shown in Fig. 1.14d and is similar to that of a hard bar impacting a soft bar. As a result, the stress in bar 2 becomes greater than that in Case 3. This result should be useful in percussive rock drilling and piling.

1.6.2.5. Case 5: A Soft Bar Impacts a Hard Bar

. This case is shown in Fig. 1.14e and is similar to that of a soft bar impacting a hard bar. As a result, the stress in bar 2 becomes smaller than that in Case 3.

1.7. Energy in an impact system

1.7.1. Relation Between Kinetic Energy and Strain Energy

We take a case similar to Case 3 shown in ; (3) the initial condition is that bar 2 stands still.

As soon as bar 1 starts to strike bar 2, two new waves with the same particle velocity υ will be induced, and they propagate into bar 2 in the direction of increasing x and into bar 1 in the direction of decreasing x. When the new wave in bar 1 arrives at its other end, the new wave is reflected back into bar 1. Then the reflected wave travels to the interface between the two bars. During this period of time, the other new wave continues traveling in the direction of increasing x in bar 2. Now let us see the kinetic energy Ek2 of bar 2 in the same period of time:

(1.17)

where ρ,