Carbon Dioxide Utilisation: Closing the Carbon Cycle

Carbon Dioxide Utilisation

Closing the Carbon Cycle

Editors

Peter Styring

UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

CO2Chem Network, UK

Elsje Alessandra Quadrelli

CNRS researcher and chairwoman of the Sustanability Chair of Chemical, Physics, and Electronic Engineering School CPE Lyon, France

Katy Armstrong

UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

CO2Chem Network, UK

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

Part 1. Introductory Concepts

Chapter 1. What is CO2? Thermodynamics, Basic Reactions and Physical Chemistry

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Spectroscopy and its role in climate change

1.3. Phase behaviour and solvent properties

1.4. Kinetics and thermodynamics

1.5. Commercially important reactions of carbon dioxide

Chapter 2. Carbon Dioxide Capture Agents and Processes

2.1. Carbon dioxide sources

2.2. Capture processes

2.3. Carbon dioxide capture agents

2.4. Future perspectives

2.5. Concluding remarks

Chapter 3. CO2-Derived Fuels for Energy Storage

3.1. Introduction

3.2. The decarbonisation of electrical generation

3.3. The decarbonisation of transport

3.4. The decarbonisation of heat

3.5. Conclusion

Chapter 4. Environmental Assessment of CO2 Capture and Utilisation

4.1. Introduction: Why do we need a reliable environmental assessment of CO2 utilisation?

4.2. Green chemistry and environmental assessment tools

4.3. Life cycle assessment

4.4. ISO standardisation of LCA

4.5. How to conduct an LCA for CO2 capture and utilisation?

4.6. Conclusions for LCA of CCU

Part 2. Contribution to Materials

Chapter 5. Polymers from CO2—An Industrial Perspective

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Challenges in CO2 utilisation

5.3. Polymers based on CO2

5.4. Polymers based on CO2—direct approach

5.5. Polymers based on CO2—indirect approach

5.6. Industrial example: direct epoxide/CO2 copolymerization

5.7. Summary and outlook

Chapter 6. CO2-based Solvents

6.1. Introduction

6.2. CO2 as a solvent

6.3. CO2-expanded liquids

6.4. CO2-responsive switchable solvents

6.5. Conclusions

Chapter 7. Organic Carbonates

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Carbonates from cyclic ethers

7.3. Linear carbonates from alcohols

7.4. Cyclic carbonate from diols

7.5. Effect of drying agents

7.6. Oxidative carboxylation of alkenes

7.7. Industrial potential

Chapter 8. Accelerated Carbonation of Ca- and Mg-Bearing Minerals and Industrial Wastes Using CO2

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Engineered weathering of silicate minerals

8.3. Carbonation of alkaline industrial wastes

Part 3. Energy and Fuels

Chapter 9. Conversion of Carbon Dioxide to Oxygenated Organics

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Methanol production

9.3. Dimethyl ether

9.4. Other oxygenates

9.5. Concluding remarks

Chapter 10. The Indirect and Direct Conversion of CO2 into Higher Carbon Fuels

10.1. The (inevitable) coupled nature of our energy and CO2 emission challenges

10.2. The concept of carbon-neutral liquid hydrocarbon fuels

10.3. The conversion or utilisation of CO2

Chapter 11. High Temperature Electrolysis

11.1. Introduction

11.2. High temperature operation

11.3. Cell and stack configurations and balance of plant

11.4. Cell materials

11.5. Electrochemistry

11.6. SOC diagnostics

11.7. Electrolysis of carbon dioxide and co-electrolysis of carbon dioxide and steam

11.8. Conclusions

Chapter 12. Photoelectrocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Organizing principles of photoelectrochemical CO2 reduction

12.3. Photovoltaic/electrolyser duel module systems: Metal electrodes for CO2 conversion

12.4. Group III–V: GaP, InP, GaAs as photocathode for CO2 reduction

12.5. Group II–VI: CdTe, and Group IV: Si, SiC photoelectrodes

12.6. Titanium oxide photoelectrodes

12.7. Other oxides photoelectrode: Cu2O, CuFeO2, etc

12.8. Semiconductor with a molecular co-catalyst

12.9. Semiconductors decorated with metal electrocatalysts for CO2 reduction

12.10. Summary, conclusion and prospect

Part 4. Perspectives and Conclusions

Chapter 13. Emerging Industrial Applications

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Scaleup

13.3. Technology readiness

13.4. Methanol pilot plants

13.5. CO2 reduction on a pilot scale

13.6. Reforming reactions on a pilot scale

13.7. Polymer pilot plants

13.8. Mineralization pilot plants

13.9. Summary

Chapter 14. Integrated Capture and Conversion

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Routes to CDU

14.3. Integrated CO2 utilisation processes

Chapter 15. Understanding and Assessing Public Perceptions of Carbon Dioxide Utilisation (CDU) Technologies

15.1. Introduction

15.2. What will the public think of CDU?

15.3. Assessing public opinions of CDU

15.4. Conclusion

Chapter 16. Potential CO2 Utilisation Contributions to a More Carbon-Sober Future: A 2050 Vision

16.1. Context elements

16.2. Efficiency and new materials to complement CCS efforts

16.3. The massive attention on renewable energy injection

16.4. Bridges among CO2-to-fuel and specialty chemicals productions

16.5. When CO2 supply becomes the issue

16.6. Local solutions to global issues

16.7. Timescales to deployment

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Hamid Almegren,     Petrochemical Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology (KASCT), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Katy Armstrong

UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

CO2Chem Network, UK

André Bardow,     Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Marie Barnes,     Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada

Andrew B. Bocarsly,     Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, US

Denis Cumming,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

George Dowson,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Peter P. Edwards,     KACST-Oxford Petrochemical Research Centre, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory (KOPRC), Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Rachael Elder,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Liam J. France,     KACST-Oxford Petrochemical Research Centre, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory (KOPRC), Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Greeshma Gadikota,     Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, and Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Jing Gu,     Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, US

Peter J. Hall,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Richard H. Heyn,     SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, Blindern, Oslo, Norway

Philip Jessop,     Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada

Christopher R. Jones,     Environment & Behaviour Research Group, Department of Psychology, UK; UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Vladimir L. Kuznetsov,     KACST-Oxford Petrochemical Research Centre, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory (KOPRC), Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Ana Maria Lorente Lafuente

Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies e.V., Potsdam, Germany

Jens Langanke,     Bayer Technology Services GmbH, Leverkusen, Germany

Ray Marriott,     Biocomposite Centre, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UK

Mogens Bjerg Mogensen,     Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, DTU Risø Campus, Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, Denmark

Michael North,     Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence, Department of Chemistry, The University of York, Heslington, York, UK

Ah-hyung Alissa Park,     Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, and Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Turgay Pekdemir,     Future Technology Execution, Transverse Technologies, ALSTOM (Switzerland) Ltd, Zentralstrasse, Birr, Switzerland

Martina Peters,     Bayer Technology Services GmbH, Leverkusen, Germany

Elsje Alessandra Quadrelli,     CNRS researcher and chairwoman of the Sustanability Chair of Chemical, Physics, and Electronic Engineering School CPE Lyon, France

Anthony Rennie,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Peter Styring

UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

CO2Chem Network, UK

Niklas V. von der Assen,     Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

I.A. Grant Wilson,     UK Centre for Carbon Dioxide Utilization, Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Aurel Wolf,     Bayer Technology Services GmbH, Leverkusen, Germany

Yong Yan,     Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, US

Elizabeth L. Zeitler,     Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, US

Preface

Peter Styring, Elsje Alessandra Quadrelli, and Katy Armstrong

When the idea of this textbook was first suggested, carbon dioxide utilisation (CDU) was in the beginning of something of a renaissance. However, it was firmly aligned with carbon capture and storage (CCS). It would be easy to have written this book to reflect this stance, however the subject has progressed. We decided to take a whole systems' approach by looking at the core CDU toolkit together with life-cycle assessment (LCA), public perception and a view of how CDU can become an industrially viable process. We have looked to close the Carbon Cycle. While an in-depth review of CDU would give a snapshot in time of the subject it is rapidly evolving and the specifics would quickly date. Therefore, this book is aimed at Masters students, graduate students and above, giving an overview of the whole process. It is our intention that this textbook can be used as a stand-alone reference that can be used to develop a comprehensive course in CDU. We also need to consider the role that CDU plays in the technological sphere of low-carbon economies. It is apparent that CDU alone will not cure the carbon dioxide emissions problems: it should be regarded as one of the key components in a complete, complicated jigsaw. CCS together with other carbon abatement technologies are definitely required to cope with the vast quantities of CO2 emitted, as has been defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.¹ Therefore, CCS or other intervention technologies will be required in the immediate future to dramatically cut CO2 emissions. However, as emissions fall and CDU becomes commercialized, the relative ratio of CDU/CCS will most likely increase as the gap narrows. To be truly effective, we need to consider capture from all sources: power generators, industrial emitters and ultimately directly from the atmosphere. Only when we can control these sources can we claim to have created a carbon cycle. The Earth evolved its own natural carbon cycle: natural CO2 emissions were captured by plants and forests and an equilibrium was achieved. Man has disturbed that equilibrium, so needs to restore a new equilibrium through a synthetic carbon cycle. The latter will benefit from technological advances in areas such a catalysis and so the synthetic carbon cycle will have a much shorter cycle time than natural, geological and environmental processes.

However, CDU is not just about CO2 mitigation. Each molecule of CO2 contains a single carbon atom. If this is sequestered geologically, then that carbon is lost to the economy. But we rely on carbon in modern life. Carbon is used in fuels, polymers, commodity chemicals, cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and so on. Imagine a society that does not use carbon: the future would be bleak. To retain quality of life we need carbon. So where do we get it from? Currently the majority of carbon-based materials are derived from fossil oils, however these are not sustainable. If we can derive these chemicals instead from emitted carbon dioxide, then we have a sustainable carbon pathway. If the CO2 emitted along this pathway is recycled into the process, then we have a carbon cycle. As discussed earlier, the synthetic carbon cycle will be considerably shorter than the natural cycle as it will involve engineered and intensified chemical processes including enhanced capture agents, tailored catalysts and targeted products. Photosynthesis is not efficient. It has efficiencies for the conversion of solar energy to chemicals of a few percent in general, certainly less than 10%, and with slow kinetics. It involves complex metabolic pathways that would be difficult to replicate synthetically using even the most modern chemical methods. To be truly considered to be a carbon cycle, all emissions must be accounted for, including atmospheric emissions that are present in low concentrations.

The other aspect that needs to be considered is the energy required to achieve capture and conversion. If this energy comes from fossil oils sources, then the benefits of CDU are negated. Therefore, the energy needs to come from renewable power sources such as wind and solar. But will there be enough energy available from renewable sources? Furthermore, how will we be able to differentiate renewable power from power that is existing on the grid? It is likely the energy mix will be such that the renewables are fed into the power grid and become indistinguishable. We will therefore need to make the assumption that we are using a proportion of the grid power of an equivalent value to that generated as excess renewable. This highlights an interesting concept in the CDU value chain: the origin of the renewable power. If we work to a distributed power model, then the local power used will be a cocktail of fossil, renewable and nuclear power, depending on the country. CDU has the capability to be used locally or remotely to the CO2 emission. Similarly the renewable power may also be generated close to the utilisation site or remotely. In the latter case, the distributed grid power model will be the most likely. However, if power is generated locally to the utilisation site, and indeed the emission site, then we have a truly localized CDU system. Is such a case, we can be sure that the power consumed is completely renewable, like organic produce, or if it uses a top-up from the mixed source grid.

P.1. Utilisation

Carbon dioxide utilisation (CDU), carbon capture and utilisation (CCU), carbon capture, storage and utilisation, carbon capture and reuse (or recycling), and so on; there are many terms, however they all represent the same concept. Carbon dioxide is captured either chemically or physically and is transformed into a product by the making and breaking of bonds.² CO2 goes into the reaction but is recovered in a chemically changed form in the product. This is in contrast to the use of CO2 in CCS, enhanced hydrocarbon recovery (EHR), including enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced gas recovery (EGR) food production or supercritical solvent applications where CO2 enters the process but also leaves the process chemically unchanged.

In CCS, the CO2 is treated as a waste material and is captured (see Chapter 2), transported and finally stored geologically in depleted oilfields or saline aquifers. Many of these are located beneath seas and oceans, and hence CCS is regarded by some as maritime landfill. CCS has high associated capital expenditure and operational expenditure and because it treats CO2 as a waste can never achieve a profit. However, it does serve to curtail CO2 emissions to the atmosphere that are a result of anthropogenic activity, particularly from power generation or heavy industry. Many countries have considered CCS as a climate change mitigation option, however recent data from the Global CCS Institute in Australia suggest that CCS projects are being abandoned globally at over 10% per annum.³ So how does CDU fit into the equation? CDU converts the CO2 into useful intermediates or end products that have commercial value. Clearly, because of the huge quantities of CO2 emitted, only a percentage of these emissions can be transformed. Therefore, the role of CDU will, at least in the short term, complement but not replace CCS. The value of the products depends on a balance between the resource and energy input required to achieve the conversion and the market value and capacity of the product. There are a number of metrics that need to be considered when CDU processes are investigated that will determine the environmental and economic viability. A possible scenario is represented in Figure P.1, which considers net CO2 capture, lifetime of storage, market value, market capacity and energy benefit/requirements. A score between, say, 1 and 10 can be assigned to the process in the spider diagram which gives a visual indication of the viability of the process. The closer it is to the data points appear close to the outer edges, the greater the cumulative benefit.

In reality, it is unlikely that a perfect spider diagram will be achieved. There will need to be a balance between each of the metrics chosen. The metrics will probably vary from process to process, however the key message is that the process should be environmentally sustainable and economically viable.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an inert gas. However, inert does not mean unreactive: it just needs a little help. Styring remembers his first CDU reaction very well. The CO2 reaction was certainly vigorous! The product was 4-octyloxybenxoic acid, formed by the reaction of 4-octyloxyphenyl lithium with solid CO2 at −78 °C in acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) as shown in Scheme P.1. The yield was quantitative.

FIGURE P.1   Schematic representation of a carbon dioxide utilisation (CDU) process representing five key metrics.

SCHEME P.1   Synthesis of 4-octyloxybenxoic acid.

So why did he want to carry out that reaction? The truth was he did not. He was actually trying to make a biphenyl derivative using the lithium salt as the intermediate. Organolithium salts are very reactive nucleophiles so when the reaction vessel, a round-bottomed flask, broke the contents which were in THF solution were immediately discharged into the cardice (solid CO2)–acetone slush bath (which achieves −78 °C) and the reaction was instantaneous and vigorous. The result was a large quantity of a white crystalline solid that was easily recovered and characterized. The key to this unfortunate conversion was the high reactivity of the organolithium salt. Why was the organolithium reagent so reactive? The molecule is packed full of energy through the formation of a carbon–metal bond. The molecule had been preloaded with energy, like a catapult, and was just waiting to release that energy, which was transferred to the CO2 in the formation of the new product. So CO2 is acting as an energy vector and that is key to any discussions regarding the conversion and utilisation of CO2.

The transformation of CO2 into a useful chemical relies on activation of the CO2, or one of the co-reactants. This could be achieved by creating high-energy salts as described above, or by using a catalyst. Alternatively, pressure or temperature changes could be used to enhance the reaction. The issue of co-reactants is also important. These need to be sourced such that they are sustainable, and themselves of low-carbon footprint. All while being available at a cost that does not make the process prohibitively expensive.

P.2. Closing the Carbon Cycle

So what does this book serve to achieve? It will consider the processes and reactions required to achieve conversion of CO2 to value-added products. It will also consider how we look at the whole supply chain and how we engage the public in the process. Eventually we want to close the carbon cycle. If we capture CO2 in a product and then reemit it, we need to be able to show that is can be recaptured and again used in a conversion process. Figure P.2 shows a schematic representation of the conceptual process. In the case of the initial emissions, let us consider a situation where the CO2 is released from a power station or an industrial source.⁴ The figure shows that this goes directly into the cycle at the capture stage. The conversion may or may not require a separate capture step, but as a starting point let us consider it does.

The conversion process will need other elements in order for the transformations to be effective and even possible. It will need co-reagents such as hydrogen, water, organic intermediates, metal salts. It will of course need energy and this is denoted renewable for the reasons outlined above. The products that form will effectively store the CO2 within the molecular structure. How long that CO2 is stored depends on the material produced and its application. Two extreme scenarios are presented. Some CO2 may be stored in polymers or inorganic carbonates (cement, aggregates) and the storage life may be considerable. In the case of polymers, the materials may be further recycled through reprocessing or remanufacturing.⁵ Therefore, the carbon may spend a considerable period in an associated carbon cycle. Alternatively, it may be converted into fuels and combusted to release energy, re-emitting CO2 which can then be captured, in the figure through atmospheric or air capture, and reintroduced into the CO2 conversion cycle.

FIGURE P.2   Schematic representation of a carbon dioxide capture and utilisation process.

Reproduced with permission from CO2Chem Media & Publishing Limited.

To achieve the aims of the book, we have assembled some of the world's leading researchers in CDU to give an insight into particular areas. This is a starting point on a journey into the world of CDU. Hopefully some of the readers early in their research careers will find inspiration from the book and one day become research leaders in their own right.

Chapter 1 considers the structure and properties of carbon dioxide and the physical chemistry that allows it to react to form new molecules. Interactions between CO2 and other species are considered, particularly those with metal species that form the basis of catalysis. The chapter provides the foundations upon which subsequent chapters are built and also provides an entry point into more detailed literature.

Carbon dioxide capture is discussed in Chapter 2. The current industry standard, amine capture, is discussed in detail and the drawbacks and limitations discussed. Insights are offered into alternative sorption agents and new technologies are highlighted. While the main focus is on postcombustion capture from mixed gas exhausts (flue gases), the concept of atmospheric capture from the atmosphere is also introduced.

Converting carbon dioxide, a stable molecule, into products that necessarily have a higher energy, needs activation of the process. The use of catalysts will be discussed extensively throughout the book, however there is an additional, perhaps obvious input, which is required: energy itself. Chapter 3 looks at carbon dioxide within the sphere of energy storage, using CO2 as a vector or buffer for excess renewable energy storage.

A field of research of growing interest and importance is that of LCA. This is the basis of the circular economy, the carbon cycle and the supply chain that feeds into it. The concept is introduced in Chapter 4 and a case study is used to emphasize the concept. There are various levels of LCA but nevertheless it is important that even a basic analysis if performed on any process proposed to assess the environmental as well as academic interest.

Chapter 5 begins the section on materials derived from carbon dioxide and covers polymers as a sink for CO2. General concepts in polymer chemistry are covered and the so-called Dream Process for the production of poly(urethane)s from CO2 is covered in detail.

The use of CO2 as a solvent, usually in its supercritical state, is well known. In Chapter 6, the use of scCO2 on its own and in mixed solvent systems is discussed. The use of the solvent together with other solvents is also considered, especially those where ‘switchable’ solvent systems can be developed. Such systems allow us to control reactivity and solubility while also facilitating the separation of products using differential solubility effects.

Chapter 7 discusses the formation of organic carbonates with both linear and cyclic structures. The synthesis of organic carbonates is important as it represents an example of high atom-efficient synthesis. For the reaction of an epoxide with CO2, the reaction is 100% atom efficient. That is to say that every atom of both reactant molecules is retained in the final product, with 1 mol of epoxide reacting with 1 mol of CO2.

The concept of mineralization is introduced in Chapter 8. The CO2 is captured by inorganic salts to give inorganic carbonates such as magnesium or calcium carbonates. These materials are useful in the construction industries and the built environment and represent a lower CO2 option for their production. In particular, accelerated mineralization is an important development as it facilitates commercial production of such products.

Chapter 9 considers the synthesis of oxygenate fuels, such as methanol, formic acid and dimethoxyether. While these are considered as fuels in the context of this book they can also be regarded as chemical intermediates in the process industries. For example, methanol is widely used in European member states as a fuel additive: a partial fossil fuel replacement. However, it may also be used as a chemical feedstock in the synthesis of polymers such as polyesters.

The need for higher hydrocarbon fuels cannot be underestimated, particularly in the aviation and long-haul transport sectors. Chapter 10 considers the synthesis of energy-dense hydrocarbons produced by the reduction of CO2 using hydrogen as the co-reactant.

Chapter 11 looks at the production of fuels by high temperature electrolysis of CO2 and its co-electrolysis with steam to produce synthesis gas. This is achieved using solid oxide electrolysis cells, the reverse mode of a fuels cell. The development of novel materials to enhance performance over prolonged operation is discussed.

Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide is covered in Chapter 12. The conversion of photon energy to electrical energy and finally chemical energy is one of the fundamental processes in nature. This chapter will look at how inorganic materials such as metal oxides and semiconductors can be used to harvest photonic energy and catalyse the conversion of CO2 into valuable chemicals.

Chapter 13 focuses on the emerging industrial applications of CO2 utilisation. Many CDU processes are still at the discovery stage, small quantities of products being prepared at the laboratory bench. A few processes have moved beyond this, crossing the so-called ‘valley of death’, to produce products on a commercial or near-commercial scale, and some case studies of these are described.

Chapter 14 discusses integrated CCU processes. CO2 transformations may work well in isolation but would not be considered viable for scaleup to a commercial level. This may be related to lack of thought of the integration of the transformation step into a complete process: looking at complete mass and energy flows, at control systems or potential hold-up or ‘pinch points’. This chapter considers two case studies to highlight problems and identify potential solutions.

The social impact of a new technology is often neglected in the research and development phase. Chapter 15 looks at how social impact of CDU can be addressed and how public perception can be influenced through stakeholder involvement in technology roll-out. Often adverse public reaction can halt a perfectly viable technology through lack of or incomplete knowledge.

Chapter 16 closes the book and offers a perspective for the development of CDU: a 2050 vision. Many technologies take decades to achieve market penetration. The book offers a perspective of where we are now. The 2050 vision serves to introduce horizon scanning to offer scenarios of where we will be in 35 years' time.

P.3. The Multiple Roles of CDU

So what do we want to achieve from CDU? Is it a chameleon technology that needs to adapt to different technological landscapes or is it a cornerstone that actually links different technologies and even areas together? Let us consider the following areas:

• Environment

• Energy

• Resources

What can CDU achieve in and between each of these areas? In environmental terms, it provides a way to at least partially decarbonize the chemical and power sectors. It may be a small impact at the present time but may become more significant in the future. In the energy field, utilisation of CO2 will require energy to be added to the system. If this energy is derived from excess renewable energy this means that the energy is effectively stored in a chemical form. It therefore has the potential to be reused later when there is greater energy demand. In such a situation the CO2 is acting as an energy vector between the electrical and chemical domains. The issue of resources is both complex and exciting. It has many facets within CDU. First, products are being produced from CO2 that remove it from the emissions domain. However, second, by making these products from CO2 it is removing the need, at least in part, to derive the products from fossil fuel-based chemical starting materials. Therefore, CO2 reductions are being made twice: once from starting resources and once from emissions reduction.

Therefore, CDU acts as a cornerstone linking the different technologies. It provides a degree of greenhouse gas replacement together with increased energy and resource efficiency and security. It may not be a complete solution but it will certainly have a significant impact.

We must also be acutely aware of the social impact of introducing a new technology. Will the public accept products derived from carbon dioxide? Let us turn the question back a few years. Would the public accept newspapers or books printed on recycled paper? Would they accept drinks bottles made from recycled plastics? The answer is of course yes. What we now need to do is advocate the use of CO2 as a recycled resource: not a waste. To do that we must consider the benefits of using recycled CO2. This book will give some examples of how this can be done. However, it is up to the creative minds amongst you, the innovators, the ideators, the entrepreneurs to find ways in which to engage and convince the public of the benefits of CDU and then to put those ideas into scientific, engineering or commercial practice. It has been said that great ideas come from creative minds, but that truly outstanding and game-changing ideas come from those who think completely outside the box. Ask a member of the public to describe carbon dioxide, many will struggle. Those with a scientific background (or at least a good memory back to high school) may offer the opinion that it is a colourless, odourless gas: you cannot feel it, you cannot smell it and you certainly cannot touch it. Now consider the polymer shown in Figure P.3, which is a sample of CO2-derived poly(methyl acrylate). You can see it, you can definitely touch it and it may have a faint smell of chemical. The polymer shown contains 65% by weight carbon dioxide! A small chemical modification has transformed gaseous carbon dioxide into a stable thermoplastic polymer that can be reprocessed and remanufactured over and over again!

When Styring first said he was going to work on CDU, some academics laughed and quoted the first law of thermodynamics: ‘Energy is conserved. Energy can be transformed from one form to another but it cannot be created or destroyed’. But the world sees energy and does not distinguish where it comes from. To transform CO2 into CO, for example, requires energy. Fact; but that energy could come from fossil fuel combustion, or it could come from renewable sources. ‘Energy can be transformed from one form to another’: there lies the answer. Renewable energy is invariably electrical energy. Chemicals represent chemical energy.