Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    The Riemann Zeta-Function: Theory and Applications
    The Riemann Zeta-Function: Theory and Applications
    The Riemann Zeta-Function: Theory and Applications
    Ebook952 pages9 hours

    The Riemann Zeta-Function: Theory and Applications

    By Aleksandar Ivic

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    "A thorough and easily accessible account."—MathSciNet, Mathematical Reviews on the Web, American Mathematical Society. This extensive survey presents a comprehensive and coherent account of Riemann zeta-function theory and applications. Starting with elementary theory, it examines exponential integrals and exponential sums, the Voronoi summation formula, the approximate functional equation, the fourth power moment, the zero-free region, mean value estimates over short intervals, higher power moments, and omega results. Additional topics include zeros on the critical line, zero-density estimates, the distribution of primes, the Dirichlet divisor problem and various other divisor problems, and Atkinson's formula for the mean square. End-of-chapter notes supply the history of each chapter's topic and allude to related results not covered by the book. 1985 edition.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateJul 12, 2012
    ISBN9780486140049
    The Riemann Zeta-Function: Theory and Applications

    Related to The Riemann Zeta-Function

    Titles in the series (100)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Mathematics For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Physicists Attack Math’s $1,000,000 Question

      Apr 4, 2017

      Physicists are attempting to map the distribution of the prime numbers to the energy levels of a particular quantum system.

      4 min read

    • Article

      The Twin Prime Hero: Rags, riches, and fame in mathematics.

      Dec 29, 2016

      Yitang “Tom” Zhang spent the seven years following the completion of his Ph.D. in mathematics floating between Kentucky and Queens, working for a chain of Subway restaurants, and doing odd accounting work. Now he is on a lecture tour that includes st

      8 min read

    • Article

      The Sacred, Spherical Cows of Physics: Theoretical physics milks symmetry to power its newest tool.

      May 1, 2014

      Early in their training, many physics students come across the idea of spherical cows. Cows in the real world—even at their most plump and well-fed—are hardly spherical, and this makes it tricky to calculate things like, say, how their volume or surf

      11 min read

    • Article

      The Deepest Uncertainty: When a hypothesis is neither true nor false.

      Jun 6, 2013

      Georg Cantor died in 1918 in a sanatorium in Halle, Germany. A pre-eminent mathematician, he had laid the foundation for the theory of infinite numbers in the 1870s. At the time, his ideas received hostile opposition from prominent mathematicians in

      4 min read

    • Article

      Why Mathematicians Should Stop Naming Things After Each Other

      Sep 2, 2020

      Any student of modern math must know what it feels like to drown in a well of telescoping terminology. For a high-profile example, let’s take the Calabi-Yau manifold, made famous by string theory. A Calabi-Yau manifold is a compact, complex Kähler ma

      6 min read

    • Article

      Kolmogorov Complexity and Our Search for Meaning

      Aug 2, 2018

      Was it a chance encounter when you met that special someone or was there some deeper reason for it? What about that strange dream last night—was that just the random ramblings of the synapses of your brain or did it reveal something deep about your u

      8 min read

    • Article

      Are Neural Networks About to Reinvent Physics?

      Nov 21, 2019

      Can AI teach itself the laws of physics? Will classical computers soon be replaced by deep neural networks? Sure looks like it, if you’ve been following the news, which lately has been filled with headlines like, “A neural net solves the three-body p

      9 min read

    • Article

      How Physics Is Like Three-Chord Rock: Like a set of common chords, the same math appears in diverse fields of physics.

      Jun 12, 2014

      A few years back, 12 million of us clicked over to watch the “Pachelbel Rant” on YouTube. You might remember it. Strumming repetitive chords on his guitar, comedian Rob Paravonian confessed that when he was a cellist, he couldn’t stand the Pachelbel

      6 min read

    • Article

      A Supermassive Lens On The Constants Of Nature

      Nov 25, 2020

      The 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics went to three researchers who confirmed that Einstein’s general relativity predicts black holes, and established that the center of our own galaxy houses a supermassive black hole with the equivalent of 4 million suns

      9 min read

    • Article

      The Math That Takes Newton Into the Quantum World

      Feb 28, 2019

      In my 50s, too old to become a real expert, I have finally fallen in love with algebraic geometry. As the name suggests, this is the study of geometry using algebra. Around 1637, René Descartes laid the groundwork for this subject by taking a plane,

      9 min read

    • Article

      Babbage And Running His Many Engines

      Nov 16, 2021

      Mike Bedford Like most of us, Mike tended to think of the likes of Alan Turing and John von Neumann as the pioneers of computing, so delving further into Charles Babbage’s creations was truly inspiring. Discussion about the first ever computer often

      11 min read

    • Article

      Intermediate Lesson

      Jan 21, 2020

      Intermediate Lesson
      3 min read

    • Article

      The Universe Began With a Big Melt, Not a Big Bang

      Oct 5, 2017

      There are two tantalizing mysteries about our universe, one dealing with its final fate and the other with its beginning, that have intrigued cosmologists for decades. The community has always believed these to be independent problems—but what if the

      10 min read

    • Article

      How Math’s Most Famous Proof Nearly Broke: Andrew Wiles thought he had a solution to an age-old puzzle. Until it began to unravel.

      May 28, 2015

      Andrew Wiles gave a series of lectures cryptically titled “Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves, and Galois Representations” at a mathematics conference in Cambridge, England, in June 0f 1993. His argument was long and technical. Finally, 20 minutes into t

      8 min read

    • Article

      How Math’s Most Famous Proof Nearly Broke

      Dec 20, 2018

      Andrew Wiles gave a series of lectures cryptically titled “Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves, and Galois Representations” at a mathematics conference in Cambridge, England, in June 0f 1993. His argument was long and technical. Finally, 20 minutes into t

      8 min read

    • Article

      Antennas

      Dec 1, 2020

      Antennas
      4 min read

    • Article

      Researchers Gain New Understanding From Simple AI

      Apr 15, 2022

      In the last two years, artificial intelligence programs have reached a surprising level of linguistic fluency. The biggest and best of these are all based on an architecture invented in 2017 called the transformer. It serves as a kind of blueprint fo

      5 min read

    • Article

      How to Build a Search Engine for Mathematics: The Surprising Power of Neil Sloane’s Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.: The surprising power of Neil Sloane’s Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

      Oct 22, 2015

      On the average summer Saturday, the mathematician Neil Sloane woke up to a crisis. “There are always crises,” he said— albeit crises of the teapot tempest variety. One Saturday over breakfast, he faced an inbox message titled “edits from outer space.

      10 min read

    • Article

      Microcontrollers In Amateur Radio

      Aug 1, 2022

      My way of teaching about program data has always been a little different than the way most approach the subject. As you may know, pointers in C are a special type of variable that allows you to access data in a very efficient manner. Indeed, many com

      6 min read

    • Article

      Analog Adventures

      Dec 1, 2022

      Analog Adventures
      5 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for The Riemann Zeta-Function

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      The Riemann Zeta-Function - Aleksandar Ivic

      ERRATA

      p. V 1. 9 should have a point after results.

      p. 13 1. 1 should be log |z| and f(0) = 1 1. -14 is should be if

      p. 17 1. 1, absolute value signs are not needed in |rn|−1.

      p. 17 1. -2 better: Then, if T is not an ordinate of a zero,

      p. 18 1. 11 should be (A.33), not (A.35).

      p. 20 1. 1 should be (1.38), not (1.48).

      p. 27 better put: (1.71) (for n ≥ n0(ε)) follows

      (not >).

      p. 69 in (2.40) should have |S|²

      p. 71 at the end of (2.44) bracket is missing: should be ... + 2)).

      p. 74 in (2.56) should be (absolute value signs missing) |g(r)(x)|

      p. 77 1. -12 should be r .

      p. 80 1. 1 should have u > 1 (not <).

      p. 87 1. 5 should be x–a and not x–2a

      p. 88 1. 17 should be: obtains, for N x,

      p. 89 1. 15 should be convergent and not covergent

      and the next line by

      ,where Aq, Bq ans Cq are uniformly bounded.

      p. 91 1. -8 replace a, b > 0, by 0 < a < b,

      (replace + by =)

      p. 121 1. -8 replace than by then

      p. 134 one absolute value sign missing in (5.17), should be |F’(t)|.

      p. 140 1. -11 should be which at and not which as.

      p. 172 Γ(w) missing in (7.3), should be Γ(w)dw =

      p. 175 1. 1 should be N < N’ ≤ 2N

      p. 226 1. 12 should be 14.6 not 13.6

      ≤ σ ≤ 2

      p. 239 1. -1 ...p−σ)² should be ...p−rσ)²

      p. 257 1. -9 should have du U exp

      p. 263 in (10.40) should have (2x)⁴/, four lines below should be M >> T¹/⁴

      p. 265 1. 5 should have ξ(m) instead of ζ(m)

      p. 267 1. -6 should have T¹/(²k+6) replaced by T¹/(⁶k+6)

      p. 270 (11.7) should have

      and then all as before.

      p. 294 1. 7 should have: If we now use R

      p. 295 1. -1 and 1. -2, S should be S1

      p. 334 1. -2 should be: holds, then we obtain

      p. 334 1.-1 should be: Δ(y) = −yU−1

      (

      p. 350 1. 9 should be: A < 1 not A > 1

      p. 352 in (13.9) delete twice +ε

      p. 363 1. 1 should be the first sum, 1. 10 (13.27) should be (13.26)

      p. 383 1. -13 should have : Hafner (1981a) and not only Hafner (1981)

      p. 386 1. -11 replace γ0 < 1 by–1 < γ0 < 1

      p. 387, 389, 391 in heading on top of the page Summary should be Summatory

      p. 419 1. 1 in the middle expression it should be eit(a(n)−k) not eit(a(n)k)

      p. 432 1. -10 should be: g(n, z)n−1

      p. 437 1. -18 Pintz (in press) should be Pintz (1985)

      p. 438 1. -13 (1982) should be (1972)

      p. 440 1. -4 Renyi’s problem should be Rényi’s problem

      p. 445 1.-12 |s|−v should be |s−v|

      p. 448 1. -5 should be e(y)dy

      p. 449 1. 10 should be − logΓ(1 − u) + logΓ(u), 1. -6 (A.34) should be (A.33)

      (factor 2 is missing)

      p. 487 1. -7 Γ(a + b + 1) should be Γ(a + b)

      p. 492 (A.35) should have −1/(2s)

      p. 497 ref. R.C. Baker replace (in press) by: 46(1985), 73-79.

      p. 498 ref B.C. Berndt and R.J. Evans (1983) (in press) should be 92(1983), 67-96

      p. 499 ref. P. Deligne replace 53 by 43, (1975) by (1974)

      p. 500 ref. S.W. Graham replace (in press) by: Austin, 1985, pp. 96-126.

      p. 502 1. 7 replace on von by of von

      p. 503 first ref. Karacuba replace 119 by 112 last ref. Kolesnik replace (in press) by:

      45(1985), 115-143.

      p. 508 delete the ref. D. Suryanarayana which is twice printed, namely (1973b)

      CHAPTER ONE

      ELEMENTARY THEORY

      1.1 DEFINITION OF ζ(s) AND ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES

      The Riemann zeta-function ζ(s) is defined as

      (1.1)

      , and the series in (1.1) converges absolutely and uniformly in the half-plane Re s ≥1 + ε, since |n−s| ≤ nconverges. Here, n−s for complex s is defined as e−s log n, where log n is the natural logarithm of n. The zeta-function seems to have been studied first by L. Euler (1707–1783), who considered only real values of s. The present notation and the notion of ζ(s) as a function of the complex variable s are due to B. Riemann (1826–1866), who made a number of startling discoveries about ζ(s). Riemann wrote s = σ + it (σ, t real) for the complex variable s, and this tradition still persists, although some authors prefer the more logical notation s = σ. + iτ Uniform convergence for σ = Re s ≥ 1 + ε of the series in (1.1) implies by a well-known theorem of Weierstrass that ζ(s) is regular for σ > 1, and its derivatives in this region may be obtained by termwise differentiation of the series in (1.1).

      Historically, the zeta-function arose from the need for an analytic tool capable of dealing with problems involving prime numbers. It was observed already by Euler that

      (1.2)

      for real s > 1, where the product is taken over all primes. The identity (1.2) plays a fundamental role in the analytic theory of primes and it in fact holds for Res > 1, being a corollary of the following:

      THEOREM 1.1. Let f(n) be a real or complex-valued multiplicative function [i.e., f(mn) = f(m)f(n) if (m, n. Then

      (1.3)

      Proof of Theorem 1.1. The product in (1.3) is called an Euler product, and each of its factors is an absolutely convergent series. Hence we may multiply a finite number of these series to obtain

      denotes the summation over all n having no prime factor larger than x. Since

      where

      we obtain

      converges. Taking f(n) = n−s in (1.3) we obtain (1.2) for σ > 1.

      From (1.2) we have, for σ > 1,

      pp−σ converges for σ > 1. This shows that ζ(s) ≠ 0 for σ > 1. The regions in the complex plane where ζ(s) ≠ 0 are known as zero-free regions for ζ(s). A little later in Theorem 1.5 we shall see that σ ≥ 1 is a zero-free region for ζ(s), and it is of great importance to extend the zero-free region to the left of σ = 1 as much as possible. This problem will be reconsidered in Chapter 6, where we shall obtain the best known zero-free region for ζ(s).

      Euler’s identity (1.2) can be recast into another, often more convenient form —that is, take the logarithm of both sides in (1.2) and differentiate to obtain

      (1.4)

      for s p(log p)/(p¹+ε − 1) for σ ≥ 1 + ε and hence it converges uniformly for σ ≥ 1 + e. Changing the order of summation in (1.4) we obtain, for s = σ > 1,

      (1.5)

      where A(n) is known as the von Mangoldt function, and may be defined as

      (1.6)

      However, the series in (1.5) converges uniformly and absolutely for Re s = σ ≥ 1 + ε; thus by analytic continuation (1.5) holds for Re s = σ > 1.

      The importance of the zeta-function comes from the fact that the variable s may possess an analytic continuation outside the region σ > 1, where the series converges. In fact in most applications of zeta-function theory, it is precisely the information about ζ(s) when σ ≤ 1 which is of crucial importance. The simplest facts about the analytic character of ζ(s) are contained in

      THEOREM 1.2. The function ζ(s), defined by (1.1) for σ > 1, admits of analytic continuation over the whole complex plane having as its only singularity a simple pole with residue 1 at s = 1.

      Proof of Theorem 1.2. For x > 1, we have

      If σ > 1 and x → ∞, it follows that

      (1.7)

      Since |[t] − t| ≤ 1 it is seen that the integral in (1.7) is uniformly convergent for σ ≥ δ and any fixed δ > 0. Thus this integral represents an analytic function for σ > 0, and (1.7) provides the analytic continuation of ζ(s) over the half-plane σ > 0, its only pole for σ > 0 being s = 1 with residue 1. More generally, the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula [see (A.24)] gives, for a > 1 and n ≥ 1 fixed,

      (1.8)

      Using the fact that P2n+1(t) = O(1) we obtain by analytic continuation that (1.8) holds for σ + 2n > 0. Since n is arbitrary, the conclusion of the theorem follows.

      Another useful representation of ζ(s) may be obtained if one observes that, for σ > 1,

      (1.9)

      so that

      (1.10)

      since the alternating series in (1.9) converges for σ > 0. Thus (1.10) also provides the analytic continuation of ζ(s) for σ > 0, and shows in particular that ζ(σ) < 0 for 0 < σ < 1.

      Theorem 1.2 shows that the Laurent expansion of ζ(s) in the neighborhood of its pole s = 1 is

      (1.11)

      It is possible to evaluate explicitly the coefficients γk in (1.11), as shown by

      THEOREM 1.3. If γ0, γ1, γ2, . . . are defined by (1.11), then

      (1.12)

      and, in particular,

      (1.13)

      is Euler’s constant.

      Proof of Theorem 1.3. Let k, r ≥ 0 be integers and let

      By the Stieltjes integral representation we have

      Further let Sr(xn≤xn−1(log(x/n))r. Then

      say. We want to prove that γk = (−1)kck/k! for 0 ≤ k ≤ r. Observe that

      since the γk’s are defined by (1.11). On the other hand, using the expression for Sr(x) it is seen that

      where for 0 ≤ k ≤ r we have

      , we obtain γk = (−1)kck/k! for 0 ≤ k ≤ r, and since r may be arbitrary (1.12) follows for k = 0, 1 , 2, . . . .

      A formula such as (1.8) may be used for numerical evaluation of ζ(s), but for s = 2k already Euler established a simple, explicit formula which we state here as

      THEOREM 1.4. If k = 1,2, ... and Bj denotes the j th Bernoulli number, then

      (1.14)

      Proof of Theorem 1.4. into the well-known identity

      one obtains by logarithmic differentiation

      (1.15)

      Recall that the Bernoulli numbers Bk are defined by

      so that B0 , and B2k+1 = 0 for k: ≥ 1. Hence, for |u| < 2π, (1.15) gives

      and equating coefficients of u²k we obtain (1.14). In particular,

      (1.16)

      No one has yet succeeded in obtaining a formula as simple as (1.14) for ζ(2k + 1). In fact, besides the result of R. Apéry that ζ(3) is irrational, almost nothing is known about the arithmetical structure of ζ(2k + 1) for k > 1.

      We shall now use Theorem 1.2 to prove the classical result of J. Hadamard and C. J. de la Vallée-Poussin that ζ(s) does not vanish on the line σ = 1. This is

      THEOREM 1.5. For t real, ζ(1 + it) ≠ 0.

      Proof of Theorem 1.5. The proof is by contradiction. Since s = 1 is a pole of ζ(s), assume that 1 + it1 (t1 ≠ 0) is a zero of order m. Then 1 + it1 is a first-order pole with residue m ≥ 1 for the function ζ’(s)/ζ(s). Thus for σ > 1, but sufficiently close to 1, we have

      (1.17)

      Using Theorem 1.2 we have

      (1.18)

      and also

      (1.19)

      In (1.19) the left-hand side is bounded if ζ(1 + 2it1) ≠ 0, hence in that case we may set k = 0, while if ζ(1 + 2it1) = 0 we have k ≥ 1. In view of Λ(n) ≥ 0, (1.5) gives

      (1.20)

      But from (1.17)–(1.19) we see that

      (1.21)

      if σ is sufficiently close to 1, since 4m ≥ 4 and k ≥ 0. Thus (1.21) contradicts (1.20) and proves the theorem.

      1.2 THE FUNCTIONAL EQUATION

      The functional equation for the Riemann zeta-function is given by

      THEOREM 1.6. For all complex s

      (1.22)

      This is the symmetric form of the functional equation, which represents one of the fundamental results of zeta-function theory. It was discovered and proved by B. Riemann, and represents one of his most remarkable achievements. The functional equation shows that ζ(− 2n) = 0 for n = 1, 2, . . . , since the gamma-function has poles at nonpositive integers and for s = 0 the pole of ζ(1 − s) cancels the pole of Γ(s/2), and in fact dividing (1.22) by Γ(s/2) and letting s . The zeros s = −2n are often called the trivial zeros of ζ(s), since it will be shown a little later in Theorem 1.7 that ζ(s, and some results concerning their distribution will be proved.

      There are several equivalent ways in which the functional equation (1.22) may be written. Using standard properties of the gamma-function (see Appendix) one may write (1.22) as

      (1.23)

      or equivalently as

      (1.24)

      From Stirling’s formula (A.34) it follows that

      (1.25)

      which is for most purposes a sufficiently sharp approximation. The condition t for σ > 1, and from (1.7) and (1.22) this property holds for other values of s too.

      Proof of Theorem 1.6. There exist in the literature many proofs of the functional equation, and here we shall present two of them. The first is classical, while the second one is partially new and almost elementary. The first proof of (1.22) starts from (1.7) for 0 < σ < 1, which may be rewritten as

      (1.26)

      Actually, it turns out that (1.26) provides the analytic continuation of ζ(s) for σ , and observe that P(xdx = 0. Hence

      If σ > −1, then this expression tends to zero as A, B → ∞, proving that the integral in (1.26) is bounded; hence (1.26) holds for σ > −1. Further, for σ < 0, we have

      hence

      (1.27)

      (x not an integer), we have, by termwise integration of (1.27),

      (1.28)

      This holds for −1 < σ < 0 and reduces easily to (1.24), and by analytic continuation it holds for other values of s too. To justify term-by-term integration observe that the series for ψ(x) is boundedly convergent; hence term-by-term integration in any finite interval is permissible. Thus it will be sufficient to show

      (1.29)

      for −1 < σ < 0. An integration by parts gives

      whence (1.29) easily follows.

      Our second proof of the functional equation starts from the elementary identity

      Logarithmic differentiation gives

      or

      Letting n → ∞ we obtain the identity

      (1.30)

      which is the starting point for the proof of the functional equation. Consider now, for 0 < σ < 1,

      gives now, for 0 < σ < 1,

      (1.31)

      where

      (1.32)

      If we now use the fact that f(x) is self-reciprocal with respect to sine transforms, that is,

      (1.33)

      then (1.22) easily follows from (1.31). Namely, we have

      (1.34)

      and the last equality also holds by analytic continuation outside the strip 0 < σ < 1. Here the inversion of the order of integration is justified, since it is readily seen that

      Using the first identity in (A.30), we obtain then from (1.34)

      which is exactly (1.23). Finally, to see that (1.33) holds we use (1.15) and (1.32) to obtain

      1.3 THE HADAMARD PRODUCT FORMULA

      From the discussion made so far it follows that the only zeros of ζ(s) lying outside the strip 0 < σ < 1 are the so-called trivial zeros s = − 2n (n = 1, 2, . . .). The strip 0 < σ the critical line in zeta-function theory. To show that ζ(s) has indeed many zeros in the critical strip we must first prepare the groundwork by developing a suitable product formula, due to J. Hadamard, from complex function theory. We begin with

      LEMMA 1.1. (Jensen’s formula) Let f(s) be a function of the complex variable s = reiθ (r, θ real) which is regular in |s| ≤ R with no zeros on |s| = R and which satisfies f(0) = 1. Then

      (1.35)

      where n(r) is the number of zeros of f(s) inside the circle |s| = r.

      Proof of Lemma 1.1. Since Re logz = log|z|, the left-hand side of (1.35) is

      If s1, s2, . . . . , sn are the zeros of f(s) in |s| < R and |s1| = r1, . . . , |sn| = rn, f(0) = 1, then

      which is an alternative way of writing Jensen’s formula.

      A function f(s), regular over the whole complex plane is called an integral function of finite order is

      for some finite constant A as s → ∞. The order of f(s) is the lower bound of those A for which the above inequality holds. The study of integral functions of finite order was developed at the end of 19th century by J. Hadamard, who showed that these functions can be written as an infinite product containing factors of the form s − s0 corresponding to the zero s0 of the function in question. The integral function useful in zeta-function theory is

      (1.36)

      which is an integral function of order 1. To see this, note that from (1.7) we obtain

      , and so by Stirling’s formula (A.34)

      (1.37)

      . Using the functional equation (1.22) we have ξ(1 − s) = ξ(stoo. Further, by Stirling’s formula for real s , which shows that the order of ζ(s) is exactly 1.

      An immediate consequence of Jensen’s formula (1.35) and (1.37) is the bound

      (1.38)

      where N(T) is the number of zeros of ζ(s) in the region 0 < σ < 1,0 < t ≤ T. From the definition of ξ(s) in (1.36) it follows that the zeros of ξ(s) are the nontrivial zeros of ζ(s), since in (1.36) the trivial zeros s = −2n (n = 1, 2, . . .) of ζ(s) are canceled by the poles of Γ(s/2), while sΓ(s/2) has no zeros and the zero of s − 1 cancels the pole of ζ(s). Taking R = 4T, T ≥ T0, we have

      on using (1.35) and (1.37). The bound T log T is actually the correct order of magnitude for N(T), as will be shown by the Riemann–von Mangoldt asymptotic formula (1.44).

      Let f(s) from now on denote an integral function of order 1, where we have in mind the eventual application to f(s) = ξ(s). Observe first that using (1.35) we have

      (1.39)

      for any ε > 0 if f(s) is an integral function of order 1. If r1, r2, . . . are the moduli of zeros ρ1, ρ2, ... of f(s), then using (1.39) we have

      for any fixed ε > 0. Hence the product

      is either finite or it converges absolutely for all s, and therefore represents an integral function with zeros (of the appropriate multiplicities) at ρ1, ρ2, .... If we set

      then F(s) is an integral function without zeros, and we wish to show that F(s) = eA+Bs with some suitable constants A and B. To achieve this we shall consider g(s) = logF(s) and show that g(s) is a first-degree polynomial in s. We shall need the fact that F(s) is an integral function of order at most 1, so that for |s| = R,

      and g(s) can be defined to be single valued [since F(s) has no zeros], and consequently it is also an integral function. If we write

      then without loss of generality we may assume g(0) = 0, so that if s = Reiθ, then

      which is a Fourier series in θ. Thus

      hence

      for n ≥ 2 if R is large enough, and a similar argument shows that bn = 0 for n ≥ 2. Therefore g(s) = A + Bs, and it remains to show that F(s) has order at most 1, which will follow from

      (1.40)

      converges, so that there exist arbitrarily large values of R for which

      for all n. Let

      say, where in P1, |ρn| < R/2; in P2, R/2 ≤ |ρn | ≤ 2R; and in P3, |ρn| > 2R. For the factors of P1, we have, on |s| = R,

      so that using (1.39) we obtain

      For the factors of P2,

      where C is a positive constant. Hence by (1.39)

      while finally for P3,

      .Therefore

      converges. Hence

      and (1.40) follows. The net result is that

      (1.41)

      for suitable constants A, B if f(s) is an integral function of order 1 with zeros ρ1, ρ2, . . . .

      We shall now apply the product formula (1.41) to the function ξ(s|rn|−1 diverges if r1, r2 ... are the moduli of the zeros ρ1, ρ2, . . . of ξ(s), proving incidentally that ζ(s) has an infinity of complex (i.e., nontrivial) zeros, which must then all lie in the critical strip 0 < σ < 1. Logarithmic differentiation of (1.41) with f = ξ gives

      (1.42)

      which combined with (1.36) gives

      (1.43)

      where the summation is over all nontrivial zeros of ζ(s). Letting s → 0 in (1.43) we obtain

      Now we have Γ’(1) = —γ, Γ(1) = 1, while using the functional equation for ζ(s) and logarithmic differentiation we find that ζ’(0)/ζ(0) = log 2π, which gives

      1.4 THE RIEMANN—VON MANGOLDT FORMULA

      The formula in question was conjectured by B. Riemann in 1859 and proved by H. von Mangoldt more than 30 years later. It furnishes a precise expression for N(T), the number of zeros of ζ(s) in the region 0 < σ < 1, 0 < t ≤ T, and represents an important tool in zeta-function theory. We state the result here as

      THEOREM 1.7.

      (1.44)

      Proof of Theorem 1.7. be the rectangle with vertices 2 ± iT, − 1 ± iT. Then

      (1.45)

      where ξ(s) is defined by (1.36). With η(s) = π−s/²Γ(s/2)ζ(s) we therefore may write

      Observe first that

      while η(s) = η(1 − s) and η(σ ± it) are conjugates, so that

      consists of the segments [2, 2 + iT. Therefore

      Using Stirling’s formula (A.35) and

      we obtain

      Thus from the above estimates we have

      and to prove the theorem it remains to show that

      (1.46)

      is clearly bounded. To prove (1.46) we shall need some estimates involving ζ’/ζ. To begin we suppose that t ≥ 2, 1 ≤ σ ≤ 2, so that the gamma term in (1.43) is 0(log t) and, consequently,

      (1.47)

      In this formula we take now s = 2 + iT, we obtain

      (1.48)

      If ρ = β + iγ is a nontrivial zero of ζ(s), then Re ρ−1 = β(β² + γ²)−1 > 0 and

      hence (1.48) gives

      (1.49)

      where the summation is over all nontrivial zeros ρ of ζ(s). The last bound gives immediately

      (1.50)

      that is, each strip T < t ≤ T + 1 contains fewer than C log T zeros of ζ(s) for some absolute C > 0. Using again (1.43) with s and 2 + it (where t > 2 is not the ordinate of any ρ) and subtracting, we obtain

      (1.51)

      Here for terms with |γ − t| ≥ 1 we have

      if −1 ≤ σ ≤ 2. Hence by (1.48) the portion of the sum in (1.51) for which |γ − t| ≥ 1 is O(log t), and for |γ − t| < 1 we have |2 + it − ρ| ≥ 1, and the number of such ρ is O(log t) by (1.50). Thus we obtain

      (1.52)

      Now the proof of (1.46) easily follows, since by (1.52)

      since |Δ arg(s −ρand (1.50) holds.

      This finishes the proof of the Riemann—von Mangoldt formula (1.44). Some immediate corollaries are

      (1.53)

      and

      (1.54)

      where 0 < γ1 ≤ γ2 ≤ γ3 ≤ · · · are consecutive ordinates of nontrivial zeros ρ = β + iγ of ζ(s). The bounds in (1.53) follow by partial summation from (1.44), while (1.54) follows from (1.44) and the obvious inequalities

      We conclude this section by remarking that (1.47) can be used to prove that ζ(σ + it) ≠ 0 for

      (1.55)

      where C > 0 is an absolute constant. To see this, take s = σ + it or s = σ + 2it, ρ = β + iγ, and 1 ≤ σ < 2. In each case the sum over ρ in (1.48) is clearly positive, hence (1.47) gives

      for some absolute A > 0. Moreover, we have

      since s = 1 is a simple pole of ζ(s). If we put the above inequalities in (1.20), then (1.55) follows after some simplification with σ = 1 + δ/log t, where δ is a suitable positive constant. The zero-free region (1.55) was the one that was independently obtained by J. Hadamard and C. J. de la Vallée-Poussin around 1900 in their search for a proof of the prime number theorem. (See Chapter 12 for the strongest known version of the prime number theorem.) The estimate (1.55) is primarily of historical interest now, since better zero-free regions are known at present (see Chapter 6), and for this reason (1.55) was not formulated as a theorem.

      1.5 AN APPROXIMATE FUNCTIONAL EQUATION

      Although very important, the functional equation (1.22) for ζ(s) has the shortcoming of not expressing ζ(s) explicitly, but only in terms of ζ(1 − s) and the gamma-function. Many formulas exist in the literature which express ζ(s) [or ζk (s)] as a number of finite sums involving the function n−s. These formulas have been nicknamed approximate functional equations, and in many instances they lead to very precise results about ζ(s). Approximate functional equations for ζ(s) will be discussed extensively in Chapter 4. Our aim here is to prove only one of the simplest approximate functional equations for ζ(s) which we present as

      THEOREM 1.8. For 0 < σ0 ≤ σ ≤ 2, x ≥ |t|/π, s = σ + it,

      (1.56)

      where the O-constant depends only on σ0.

      For the proof of this theorem we shall need a simple result concerning exponential sums, which is the subject of Chapter 2. This is

      LEMMA 1.2. Let f(x) be a real-valued function on the interval [a, b], and let f’(x) be continuous and monotonic on [a, b] and |f’(x)| ≤ δ < 1. Then

      (1.57)

      where the O-constant is absolute.

      Proof of Lemma 1.2. We may suppose that f’(x) ≥ 0 on [a, b] by taking the conjugate of the sum in (1.57) if f’(x) < 0. Let ϕn(x) = e(f(n + x)) for 0 < x < 1 and let us extend the definition of ϕn(x) over the whole real line by making it periodic with period 1 and

      Then ϕn(x) may be expanded into a Fourier series of the form

      (1.58)

      and for k ≠ 0 an integration by parts yields

      Therefore setting x = 1 in (1.58) we obtain

      Summation over n gives then

      where

      Recall that the second mean value for real integrals asserts that there is a ξ in the interval [a, b] such that

      (1.59)

      providing that u, v are Riemann integrable on [a, b] and u is monotonic. Thus we apply (1.59) to the real and imaginary part of the integral for Rk to obtain

      Hence

      and the lemma follows.

      Proof of Theorem 1.8. We have, for Re s > 1 and N ≥ 2,

      Therefore

      (1.60)

      and by analytic continuation this is valid for σ (1 + |t|)N−σ. If u ≥ x we set

      and apply Lemma 1.2 with f(x) = (2π)−1|t|log x, provided that x ≥ |t|/π. From (1.57) we have

      For x ≤ N, partial summation gives

      Substituting this estimate in (1.60) we finally have, for σ0 ≤ σ ≤ 2,

      and letting N → ∞ (1.56) follows.

      We are now in a position to say something about the order of |ζ(s)|, which is one of the most important and difficult problems in zeta-function theory. From (1.56) we have, for 1 ≤ σ ≤ 2, uniformly in σ,

      (1.61)

      There is no loss of generality in supposing t > 0, since ζ(σ ± it) are conjugates. Furthermore, for σ , while using (1.23) and (1.25) we have

      (1.62)

      A useful way to compare the orders of |ζ(s)| at two different values of σ is given by the following:

      LEMMA 1.3. For 0 ≤ σ1 ≤ σ0 ≤ 3/2, t ≥ t0, we have uniformly in σ0

      (1.63)

      Proof of Lemma 1.3. be the rectangle with vertices σ1 + it ± i log²t, 3 + it ± i log²t. Then f(s) = ζ(s)Γ(s − s0 + 2) (s0 = σ0 + it, and therefore by the maximum modulus principle

      we have |Im(s − s0 + 2| = log²t, and trivially [e.g., from (1.56)] ζ(st²; hence the maximum of |f(s)| over these sides is o(1) by Stirling’s formula (A.34), while the maximum on the side with σ = 3 is clearly O(1). Also by Stirling’s formula we have

      To obtain an order result for 0 ≤ σ ≤ 1 we use ζ(1 + itlog t, ζ(itt¹/² log t and apply the Phragmén–Lindelöf principle (see Section A.8) to the function

      in the strip 0 ≤ σ ≤ 1. This function is regular in the strip and bounded for σ = 0 and σ = 1 by (1.61) and (1.62). Thus we obtain

      (1.64)

      Therefore it makes sense to define the function μ(σ) for each real σ as the infimum of number c ≥ 0 such that ζ(σ + ittc, or alternatively as

      (1.65)

      From (1.61) and (1.62) we have μ(σ) = 0 for σ for σ ≤ 0, but the exact value of μ(σ) for any 0 < σ ]. From Lemma 1.3 we see immediately that μ(σ) is nonincreasing,

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1