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Australian Soils and Landscapes: An Illustrated Compendium
Australian Soils and Landscapes: An Illustrated Compendium
Australian Soils and Landscapes: An Illustrated Compendium
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Australian Soils and Landscapes: An Illustrated Compendium

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This essential reference provides an introduction to the remarkable soils and landscapes of Australia. It reveals their great diversity and explains why an understanding of soil properties and landscape processes should guide our use of the land.

Using striking photographs of characteristic landscapes, it begins by describing the basic properties of soils and how Australia's distinctive soils and landscapes have co-evolved. We gain a greater understanding of why particular soils occur at certain locations and how soil variation can influence landscape processes, agricultural productivity and ecosystem function. The book explains the impact of various forms of land use and the changes they can bring about in soil.

This is followed by an invaluable compendium that describes and illustrates over 100 of the more important and widespread soils of Australia, along with their associated landscapes. There is a brief account of each soil's environment, usage and qualities as well as details on chemical and physical properties so we can make more informed decisions about appropriate land-use.

Australian Soils and Landscapes will be a valuable resource for farmers, natural resource managers, soil and environmental scientists, students and anyone with an interest in Australia's unique environment.

LanguageEnglish
Release dateJul 1, 2004
ISBN9780643104334
Australian Soils and Landscapes: An Illustrated Compendium

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    Australian Soils and Landscapes - Neil N. McKenzie

    AUSTRALIAN

    SOILS AND

    LANDSCAPES

    An illustrated compendium

    NEIL MCKENZIE • DAVID JACQUIER • RAY ISBELL • KATHARINE BROWN

    AUSTRALIAN

    SOILS AND

    LANDSCAPES

    An illustrated compendium

    © CSIRO 2004

    All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests.

    National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

    Australian soils and landscapes: an illustrated compendium.

    Bibliography.

    ISBN 0 643 06958 5.

    1. Soils-Australia. I. McKenzie, Neil J. (Neil James), 1958—.

    631.4994

    Available from

    CSIRO Publishing

    150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139)

    Collingwood VIC 3066

    Australia

    Cover

    This sequence of contrasting soils and sediments provides a rich

    record of past climates and soil forming conditions – Maslins Beach,

    South Australia (see pages 88–89 for details).

    Photograph: John Coppi, CSIRO

    Page iii

    Photograph: Alan Fox

    Set in Adobe Minion and Stone Sans

    Cover design by Nada Backovic

    Text design by James Kelly

    Typeset by Desktop Concepts Pty Ltd, Melbourne

    Printed in Australia by Impact Printing

    Dedicated to Bruce Butler and Pat Walker

    First and second generation pioneers

    in Australian pedology

    About the Authors

    Neil McKenzie is a principal research scientist with CSIRO Land and Water. He has been closely involved with the setting of standards and development of new methods for land resource survey in Australia.

    David Jacquier specialises in the collection and management of land resource information. He is a project officer with CSIRO Land and Water.

    Ray Isbell (deceased) had a long and distinguished career as a soil scientist specialising in soil description, distribution, genesis and classification. His major achievement was the development of The Australian Soil Classification, first published in 1996.

    Katharine Brown, formerly a project officer with CSIRO Land and Water, is a soil scientist and a doctoral candidate at the University of Western Australia.

    Contents

    Acknowledgements

    Introduction

    Organising framework

    1 Properties of soil

    Soil morphology

    Judging the appearance and feel of a soil

    Soil layers and horizons

    Colour

    Field texture and coarse fragments

    Structure

    Consistence

    Accumulations of mobile compounds

    Mineralogy

    Chemical properties

    Soil solution

    pH

    Exchangeable cations

    Soil organic matter

    Nitrogen

    Phosphorus

    Other nutrients

    Salinity and sodicity

    Physical properties

    Particle size distribution

    Bulk density and porosity

    Air and water storage

    Permeability

    Physical impediments to root growth

    Biological properties

    Microorganisms

    Larger soil fauna

    Plants

    Measuring biological properties

    2 The evolution of Australian soil

    A simple model for soil formation

    Dominant processes of soil formation

    Soil production, erosion and deposition

    Formation of clay minerals

    Textural differentiation

    Soil organic matter accumulation

    Translocation of organic matter, iron and aluminium in leaching environments

    Movement and accumulation of soluble salts

    Iron enrichment

    Wet soils and drainage

    Cracking clays and gilgai development

    Environmental change in ancient landscapes

    The geological setting

    Implications of climate change for Australian soils

    3 Characteristic Australian landscapes

    Ancient deeply weathered landscapes

    Case 1: Ferricrete

    Case 2: Silcrete

    Case 3: Sandplains of south-western Australia

    Case 4: Semi-arid, tropical north Queensland

    Erosional landscapes

    Case 5: Gullied lands of south-east Australia

    Case 6: Forested lands of the eastern scarp

    Case 7: Basalt landscapes

    Fluvial landscapes

    Case 8: East-coast rivers

    Case 9: Riverine plains of the Murray-Darling Basin

    Aeolian landscapes

    Case 10: Continental dunefields

    Case 11: Dust mantles in south-east Australia

    Case 12: Carbonate-rich landscapes in southern Australia

    Coastal landscapes

    Case 13: Landscapes with acid sulfate soils

    Case 14: Cooloola sand dunes

    Case 15: Wet coastal rainforests

    Alpine and subalpine landscapes

    Case 16: Tall alpine herbfields and subalpine woodlands

    Contrasts with other continents

    4 Soil function within ecosystems

    Cycles of matter and energy

    Water

    The soil-water balance

    Water quality

    Changes to the soil-water balance

    Vegetation

    Current patterns

    Adaptations to past and current conditions

    Fire

    Fauna

    Lessons from natural landscapes

    5 Land use, soil change and future management

    Impacts of land use

    Aboriginal interactions

    European land use

    Understanding the significance of soil change

    Managing Australian landscapes

    Current constraints

    Future directions in land use

    Information on soil and land resources

    Maps

    Other sources of information

    Relevant books

    COMPENDIUM OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS

    Rationale and format

    Format

    Soil name and general description

    Soil profile image

    Environment and location of the example profile

    Soil morphology

    Chemical and physical properties

    Key profile properties

    General qualities of the soil

    Landscape image

    The representative soils

    Anthroposols – soils formed by humans

    Calcarosols – soils dominated by carbonate

    Chromosols – neutral to alkaline soils with sharp increases in texture

    Dermosols – structured B horizons and minor changes in texture

    Ferrosols – high iron levels and minor changes in texture

    Hydrosols – wet soils

    Kandosols – strongly weathered earths with minor changes in texture

    Kurosols – acid soils with sharp increases in texture

    Organosols – organic soils

    Podosols – soils with accumulations of organic matter, iron and aluminium

    Rudosols – minimally developed soils

    Sododols – alkaline and sodic soils with sharp increases in texture

    Tenosols – slightly developed soils

    Vertosols – cracking clays

    Endnotes

    References

    Index

    Acknowledgements

    Pedologists, geomorphologists and land resource surveyors have developed a rich understanding of Australian landscapes during the last eight decades. We are indebted to the many individuals and organisations who contributed to this body of scientific knowledge.

    We thank state, territory and Commonwealth agency staff who provided data and images for the current project. Particular thanks go to members of the Working Group on Land Resource Survey who helped in various ways – David Maschmedt (South Australian Department of Land, Water, Biodiversity and Conservation), Noel Schoknecht (Agriculture Western Australia), David Howe (Northern Territory Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment), Bernie Powell (Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines), Greg Chapman (New South Wales Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources), Mark Imhof (Victorian Department of Primary Industries), Chris Grose (Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment) and Colin Pain (Geoscience Australia).

    Soil data and images were also provided by Mike Laffan (Forestry Tasmania), Richard Harper (Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management), Andy McCord (South Australian Department of Land, Water, Biodiversity and Conservation), Stuart Johnston (formerly New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service), Ross Searle (Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines) and Sam Grover (LaTrobe University).

    We drew heavily on the resources of CSIRO. Soil data and images were provided by current and past CSIRO staff including Cliff Thompson, George Hubble, Graham Murtha, Pat Walker, Phil Ryan and Ross Coventry. Landscape and other images were provided by Ian Prosser, Joe Walker, Bill van Aken, Greg Heath, Rob Fitzpatrick, Vadakattu Gupta, Tom Green, Anthony Ringrose-Voase, Jack Cavanagh, John Coppi, Brian Tunstall, Bill Emerson, Clive Kirkby, Malcolm Wright and Gary Rogers.

    Several landscape photographers were of great assistance in the provision of images for some obscure parts of Australia. In particular, we thank Alan Fox, Richard Woldendorp, Arthur Mostead, Colin Totterdell, Jiri Lochman, Jenny Currie, Caroline Fisher, Bill Bachman, Peter Walton and Alan Moyle for their generous inputs. Several organisations also provided excellent access to their photographic resources – these included the South Australian Tourist Commission, Murray-Darling Basin Commission, Australian National Botanic Gardens, CSIRO Land and Water, CSIRO Plant Industry, Victorian Museum, Coal & Allied, and Southlight Photo Agency. Aerial photographs have been reproduced with permission from Quasco/Viclmage for Victoria and Mapland for South Australia.

    We thank Greg Rinder (CSIRO Land and Water) for making our task much easier through his expert preparation of many figures. Linda Gregory likewise provided maps and graphics. Valuable technical advice was provided by Ian Prosser (CSIRO Land and Water), Henry Nix (Australian National University), Bob Wasson (Australian National University), Jon Olley (CSIRO Land and Water) and Rob Fitzpatrick (CSIRO Land and Water). Tom Bishop and Alex McBratney (University of Sydney) kindly provided S-Plus code for generating graphs of soil properties. Pat Walker very kindly reviewed the manuscript and made many useful suggestions.

    We are indebted to Andrew Bell for once again providing valuable editorial support, and Ann Crabb, Briana Elwood and Nick Alexander (CSIRO Publishing) for their excellent management of the publication process.

    Introduction

    Soil is an astonishing material that mantles most of the earth’s solid surface. It is formed by rock and mineral weathering, by transport in wind and water, and by biological activity. Soil has some remarkable properties – 1 kg can contain as many as 10²⁰ particles with a surface area of approximately 75 ha. Of great significance is the reactive nature of this surface. It may have 10²⁴ electrical charges that are mostly negative. These properties create a natural reactor within the landscape that performs many vital functions.

    Soil stores rainfall – it provides a buffer that ensures that streams and rivers flow long after storms have ceased. In the process, water is filtered and purified. Soil also supplies water and nutrients to plants. This involves myriad processes fundamental to the production of food and fibre from agriculture. Soil is used as a repository for our waste, although this is often done in ignorance of the long-term impact on both land and water resources. Most importantly, soil is essential for the maintenance of biodiversity above and below ground. The wealth of biodiversity below ground is vast if unappreciated: millions of microorganisms live and reproduce in a few grams of topsoil, an ecosystem essential for life on earth because it is critical for the cycling of carbon and oxygen.

    Yet most Australians live in urban areas and have limited direct contact with soil beyond occasional gardening. We have a vague sense that certain landscapes relate to soil – the Simpson Desert is red, the Darling Downs are black and fertile, and the vast sandplains of the Western Australian wheatbelt are pale and impoverished.

    We largely fail to appreciate that in most parts of Australia, soils and landforms have evolved over extremely long periods of time. Most soils have taken tens to hundreds of thousands of years to develop, and in some landscapes the soil cover may have lain in place for millions of years. The predominantly harsh landscapes of the continent have shaped life for hundreds of generations of Australians and we are beginning to learn that humans have, in turn, dramatically changed the natural environment. The extent of the impact on soils of the initial Aboriginal colonisation of Australia some 60 000 years ago is disputed, but it coincides with major changes in fire, vegetation and wildlife.¹ More dramatic has been the short period of European settlement. While many European settlers had a good eye for the agricultural potential of land, most underestimated the capricious climate and failed to understand limitations inherent to the often old and impoverished soils.

    Gradually, Australians have learned the hard lesson of how to adapt to the often erratic annual, decadal and longer-term variations in climate. However, we have not developed a similar appreciation of how soil affects land use. This appreciation is essential if we are to develop forms of land use that can support us in perpetuity.

    Protecting and enhancing our soil is an enormous challenge, particularly in landscapes where humans have already dramatically altered the natural order. In one sense the principles are simple and resemble the time-honoured practices of gardening – maintain organic matter, prevent compaction and ensure the soil is not too acid or alkaline. But implementing these principles across vast tracts of land, where rainfall is usually unpredictable and in short supply, is much harder. Add to this the great variety of soils with their many peculiar properties and the challenge is magnified.

    The quality of land management over large parts of Australia has improved in recent decades, but there is still much to be done. Unsustainable rates of soil erosion, widespread acidification, low organic matter levels, and salinity are major problems for many communities. Overcoming these problems requires a combined effort from individuals, communities, government and industry. An important element is improved ‘land literacy’: we need to understand the suitability of land for particular uses and learn ways of lifting constraints to plant growth. An appreciation of the fundamental properties of soil, along with knowledge of its diversity and distribution, is an essential part of all this.

    This book contributes to an emerging understanding of the soils and landscapes of Australia. We have prepared the book with several audiences in mind:

    • interested individuals who seek an introduction to the great diversity of Australian soil

    • students of the environmental sciences

    • land managers and catchment management groups requiring information to improve their understanding of soil and landscape processes

    • professionals in fields such as forestry, agronomy, hydrology and ecology requiring a compendium on Australian soil

    Readers interested in the use of soil as a material (e.g. for engineering) should also consult introductory texts with a geotechnical focus.²

    Organising framework

    The book has two parts and they can be used in several ways.

    The first part can either be read from start to finish or used more as a reference text. It progresses from an account of the basic properties of soil through to a description of the main processes operating within soil and the broader landscape. These themes are then integrated through a series of case studies on typical Australian landscapes. These span and lands to alpine environments, and their ages range from the geologically ancient through to the very young. The descriptions of different landscapes provide a context for understanding the large impacts humans have had on Australian soil.

    The second part of the book is an illustrated compendium of the more important and widespread soils of Australia with their associated landscapes. There is a brief account of each soil’s environment, land use and qualities. This material is designed to be scanned quickly to gain an overview of the diversity of Australian soils and landscapes. There are also detailed tables and graphs containing laboratory data that provide a fairly thorough characterisation of each soil. This material will be of value to those seeking technical details. A simple coding system is used for cross-referencing between the first and second parts of the book. The code denotes the soil order (see next page) and sequence number. For example, soil KA3 is the third Kandosol described in the Compendium.

    A rudimentary understanding of soil classification is helpful for appreciating and understanding the diversity of soils. As with other natural phenomena – plants, animals, rocks – soil classes can be defined and placed into groups at various levels of detail (similar to the order, family, genus, and species in botany). The official Australian Soil Classification³ is a general-purpose system that can be used at various levels of detail – it replaced several older national schemes.

    Table (i): Soil order codes and nomenclature

    The Australian Soil Classification is used as an organising framework in this book. Soils are considered mainly at the most general levels of the order and sub-order. A summary of the 14 soil orders is presented in Figure (i). The Interactive Key to the Australian Soil Classification provides an accessible introduction to the full system.⁴ Note that the coding system used here (e.g. KA3) is exclusive to this book and it is not part of the Australian Soil Classification or any other formal system.

    Figure (i): Schematic key to the Australian Soil Classification

    Source: Isbell 2002

    Chapter 1

    Properties of soil

    It is essential to appreciate the basic physical, chemical and biological properties of soil in order to understand the mechanisms of formation, relationships with landscape processes, and likely outcomes of different land management strategies. This chapter provides an overview of soil properties necessary for gaining this appreciation, and it defines terms and concepts used throughout the book.

    Soil varies vary both vertically and horizontally. Our main focus here is on vertical variation and, in particular, on soil properties that can be observed in vertical sections (soil profiles). The soil profiles in the Compendium depict typical vertical patterns found in Australia. This means that a good appreciation of the great range of soil conditions found across Australia can be derived. However, for many practical problems, it is important to understand how soil properties and soil profiles vary across the landscape. Characteristic and predictable horizontal sequences of soils are found in most contrasting landscapes. These sequences of soils are referred to by various names including catenas, toposequences and soil landscapes, and they form the basis for mapping soils. A comprehensive account of these sequences is beyond the scope of this book, but indications of the main sequences present in a district can be obtained from local land resource surveys – some useful leads and suggestions for further reading are presented at the end of Chapter 5.

    Soil morphology

    Judging the appearance and feel of a soil

    Australian languages have many words that describe the look and feel of soil (Table 1.1). Unfortunately, most of the words now in common use are ambiguous or poorly defined so they cannot be readily used to provide guidance on soil conservation and use. Soil scientists have developed agreed systems for describing the look and feel – or morphology – of a soil. In this country, the agreed system is found in the Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook¹, from which the following sections draw heavily.

    Table 1.1: A selection of Aboriginal words relating to soil – parna and gilgai are now used in the scientific literature²

    Soil morphological properties are those that can be seen, felt, sometimes heard, and occasionally smelt or tasted. They include the thickness of soil layers, texture, colour, shape and size of soil aggregates, and accumulations of particular compounds such as organic matter or carbonate. Morphological properties can be described in the field using relatively simple methods and a summary is given below.

    Soil layers and horizons

    When observed in vertical section, soil profiles nearly always have layers. The layers may be inherited from the parent material; for example, soils on alluvial flats with regular flooding often have clear sedimentary layers (e.g. soil RU2, page 318). Inherited layering can also be due to other forms of sedimentation or reflect patterns in the rock from which the soil has formed.

    Various soil-forming processes (pedogenesis) simultaneously create and destroy layers and it is the balance between these competing processes that determines whether clear horizons develop. For example, soil fauna (worms, termites and the like) often mix layers, while processes that involve the depletion and accumulation of constituents such as clay, organic matter and calcium carbonate can create distinct layers. These processes are discussed in Chapter 2.

    Whereas interminable and surprisingly heated debates flourish over the naming and definition of soil layers, the following are now well accepted. They have been adapted from the Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook.

    A soil horizon is a layer developed by soil-forming processes with morphological properties different from layers below or above it. Soil horizons are designated by a capital letter followed by numerals and lower case letters for subdivisions of various kinds. Figure 1.1 shows a soil profile with a common sequence of soil horizons. The major types of horizons are defined below.

    A horizons

    These are mineral horizons at or near the surface (topsoils) that have some accumulation of organic materials (less than O horizons). Typically, A horizons are darker than underlying horizons but they may also be horizons with lighter colours or lower contents of clay compared to underlying horizons. There are three types of A horizon.

    A1 horizon

    This is a mineral horizon at or near the soil surface that has some accumulation of organic matter. It is usually darker than the underlying horizons and it is the zone of maximum biological activity.

    A2 horizon

    This is a mineral horizon that has less organic matter, oxides³ or clay than the horizons above or below. It is a pale horizon and is common throughout Australia. Various degrees of bleaching are recognised with white or near-white layers being referred to as sporadically or conspicuously bleached, depending on its extent.

    A3 horizon

    This is a transitional horizon between A and B horizons but it is more like the A horizon.

    B horizons

    These subsoil horizons have one or more of the following:

    • concentration of clay, iron, aluminium, or organic material

    • a structure or consistence unlike the overlying A horizon and different from the horizons below

    • stronger colours than the horizons above or below

    Figure 1.1: A soil profile with many of the horizon types commonly found in Australian soil

    Photograph: George Hubble, CSIRO

    The B1 horizon is a transitional layer between the A and B horizons but it is more like the B horizon. The B2 horizon exhibits strongest development of the features listed above, whereas the B3 horizon is a transitional layer to the underlying material.

    C horizons

    These are layers below the A and B horizons composed of consolidated or unconsolidated materials. These materials are usually partially weathered and geological features are often evident. When moist, C horizons can be dug by hand.

    D horizons

    These are soil layers below the A and B horizons that differ in general character but are not C horizons. They cannot be reliably described as buried soils but they do have a contrasting pedological organisation to the overlying horizons.

    R horizons

    These are continuous masses of rock usually too strong to dig with hand tools.

    O horizons

    These horizons are dominated by organic matter that has accumulated on the surface of the soil. O horizons are subdivided according to the degree of organic material decomposition. These horizons are not common in Australia and are mostly restricted to moist or cool environments (e.g. alpine areas, swamps, wet forests).

    P horizons

    These horizons are dominated by organic materials, in various stages of decomposition, which have accumulated either under water or in very wet areas. They are often referred to as peat layers.

    Colour

    Colour is an obvious feature that has always been used for describing and identifying soil. In many cases, soil colour can provide valuable information on the subsurface environment both in terms of the processes of soil development and in relation to land use. Soil colour is determined by four main factors:

    • the quantity and type of organic matter

    • the nature and abundance of iron oxides

    • inherited features from the original parent material or accumulations of mobile constituents

    • water content

    These factors, in combination with processes of soil formation, result in an enormous range of colour patterns in Australian soils (Figure 1.2). In broad terms, the colours of the soil matrix (dominant colour) and mottles (if present) are distinguished. The colour, size and contrast of mottles are good indicators of a range of soil processes including the degree of biological activity, chemical reactions and seasonal waterlogging.

    Soil colour can be measured accurately in either the laboratory or the field using a range of instruments. However, for most practical purposes, colour is recorded in the field on fresh unsheared pieces of soil using standard colour charts. The Munsell colour system⁶ is most commonly used (similar to the colour systems used in computer graphics packages). This system is shown in Figure 1.3 and it has three axes that define the colour hue, value and chroma. The hue refers to the dominant wavelength or shade, and it is denoted using an alphanumeric code (e.g. strong red through to yellow is 10R, 2.5YR, 5YR, 7.5YR, 10YR).Value represents the tone – the gradation from black to white is scored from 0 to 9. Finally, chroma is the degree of colour saturation or difference from the tone – a chroma of 0 has no saturation whereas 9 is intensely saturated. The Munsell system also provides descriptive names for the codes; for example, a code of 10YR 6/6 is brownish yellow.

    Figure 1.2: Diverse colours are found in Australian soil. Younger landscapes (e.g. much of northern Europe and North America) do not have the strong reds and yellows that typify ancient landscapes.

    Field texture and coarse fragments

    Field texture is a measure of the behaviour of a small handful of soil when moistened and kneaded into a ball (the bolus) and pressed out to form a ribbon between the thumb and forefinger. Field texture is closely related to the particle size distribution which is measured in the laboratory (page 22).

    The proportions of sand, silt, and clay are the main determinants of field texture. Clays (particles <0.002 mm in diameter) cause the bolus to be more cohesive, sticky and plastic. Silts (particles between 0.002 and 0.02 mm in diameter) confer a silky smoothness. Sands (particles between 0.02 and 2 mm) are usually gritty. Organic matter can make the bolus more cohesive or greasy to the feel. The types of soil minerals present and cation composition (pages 14–16) also affect field texture. Table 1.2 provides a summary of the broad field texture classes. Note that separate texture classes are used for organic soils (e.g. Organosols).

    Figure 1.3: The Munsell colour system

    Structure

    Soil structure refers to the way soil particles are arranged and bound together to form aggregates or peds – normally observed after the soil has been dug up or disturbed. It also includes a description of the soil’s porosity. Soil structure is described initially by the shape, grade and size of peds. The main ped shapes encountered in natural soil are illustrated in Figure 1.4. The grade of pedality describes the distinctiveness and degree of development of peds. The categories are defined in Table 1.3.

    The dimensions of the dominant peds are also recorded in standard descriptions of soil morphology. These, in conjunction with descriptions of ped shape and grade, characterise the solid component of soil. Equally important to soil structure are the spaces between peds or holes in soil – formed variously by worms, termites, plant roots and soil shrinkage during drying. The presence of large air spaces, or macropores, is very important in determining how readily a soil can transmit water and allow root growth. Soils with abundant macropores are well aerated and permeable.

    ‘Good’ soil structure is often associated with soils having a moderate to strong grade of structure, small-sized peds and abundant macropores. However, the suitability of soil structure depends on the intended land use. For example, the best soil for rice production requires a massive structure without macropores.

    Table 1.2: Broad field texture classes

    Figure 1.4: Common shapes of peds found insoil

    Source: Noel Schoknecht

    Table 1.3: Definitions of the grades of pedality

    Consistence

    Consistence refers to the strength and adhesion in soil. Strength will vary according to the soil water content. The force required to just break or deform a small soil aggregate (about 20 mm diameter) between the thumb and forefinger is recorded along with the water content. The classes are presented in Table 1.4.

    Accumulations of mobile compounds

    A major aspect of soil formation involves the movement and transformation of compounds within the soil profile (see Chapter 2). Most of these processes proceed at imperceptible rates or have ceased to function under the current environmental conditions. However, many soil morphological features are due to accumulations of mobile compounds (e.g. carbonates). The zones of removal within either a toposequence or a soil profile can also have distinctive appearances (e.g. A2 horizons).

    Most accumulations of mobile compounds in soil can be observed in the field and this allows morphology to be used to infer how the soil has formed. However, confirmation of these inferences usually requires detailed scientific study. The following is an overview of the main types of accumulations that can be observed in field soils throughout Australia. Chapter 2 discusses in more detail the processes that cause accumulation.

    Carbonate, gypsum and soluble salts

    Many areas with low rainfall, particularly in southern Australia, have accumulations of relatively soluble minerals. The most notable in order of increasing solubility are carbonates, gypsum and the so-called soluble salts.

    Table 1.4: Consistence ratings related to soil strength used in the Compendium

    While there are several forms of carbonate, calcium carbonate is the most common. It occurs in various forms, from a soft powder through to small hard segregations, and as hardened layers that can be over a metre in thickness. Several forms of carbonate are illustrated in Figure 1.5.

    Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is more soluble than calcium carbonate and in free-draining soils it accumulates lower in the profile than carbonate. Gypsum accumulations vary from lenticular crystals, to fibrous aggregates, or aggregates of lenticular crystals.

    Various salts more soluble than gypsum and carbonate accumulate lower in the freely draining profiles of dry regions. The most common soluble salt in most areas of Australia is sodium chloride (halite or common table salt). Halite accumulations, either within the profile or on the surface, most commonly occur as fine white efflorescences when dry. They can be distinguished from carbonate or gypsum by taste.

    Iron and manganese

    Iron oxides are distributed throughout nearly all soils and, as noted earlier, control many aspects of soil colour. They can also accumulate in more concentrated zones to form coatings (e.g. linings of old root channels or surfaces of aggregates), concretions (spheres composed of distinctive concentric layers), or nodules of various shapes. These various forms of accumulation can be composed of both iron and manganese oxides. Iron and manganese concretions and nodules can be abundant and form gravel layers (e.g. soil KA13, page 268) although these may have been eroded and transported from another part of the landscape.

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