Grassfires: Fuel, Weather and Fire Behaviour
By Phil Cheney and Andrew Sullivan
5/5
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About this ebook
Grassfires: Fuel, Weather and Fire Behaviour presents information from CSIRO on the behaviour and spread of fires in grasslands. This second edition follows over 10 years of research aimed at improving the understanding of the fundamental processes involved in the behaviour of grassfires.
The book covers all aspects of fire behaviour and spread in the major types of grasses in Australia. It examines the factors that affect fire behaviour in continuous grassy fuels; fire in spinifex fuels; the effect of weather and topography on fire spread; wildfire suppression strategies; and how to reconstruct grassfire spread after the fact. The three meters designed by CSIRO for the prediction of fire danger and rate of spread of grassfires are explained and their use and limitations discussed.
This new edition expands the discussion of historical fires including Aboriginal burning practices, the chemistry of combustion, and the structure of turbulent diffusion flames. It also examines fire safety, including the difficulty of predicting wind strength and direction and the impact of threshold wind speed on safe fire suppression. Myths and fallacies about fire behaviour are explained in relation to their impact on personal safety and survival.
Grassfires will be a valuable reference for rural fire brigade members, landholders, fire authorities, researchers and those studying landscape and ecological processes.
Phil Cheney
An Australian, living in Canada, Phil Cheney has a passion for life which is reflected in his writing, music and art. http://www.diamondmine.me
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Reviews for Grassfires
2 ratings1 review
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5This is a fairly technical book but one the I found quite fascinating. Having just finished reading it, the section on Myths about grassfire is probably uppermost in my mind. And it is a myth that if you jump into a tank of water that you will be boiled alive. The passage of a grassfire is unlikely to raise the temperature of a water tank by even a fraction of 1 degree C. But you need to protect your airways from hot gases and ash. I think the book does the job that they set out to do; to make the science available and understandable to the ordinary person.I did learn that most fires are only going to move at about 20 km per hour ...though they will move considerably faster than this on an up-slop.I did learn that forest fires have a lot more fuel and are hotter and harder to predict and extinguish than grassfires. And if you are in your car and try ing to survive...you have a better chance in a paddock than in an area alongside a road where there are trees. The authors have developed a number of slide rules or nomograms for predicting the rate of forward spread for grassfires ...and others for fire danger. I guess you don't have to be a genius to figure out that a combination of: higher temperatures, low fuel moisture content and wind is a pretty potent mix for fires. I also found it interesting that the convection columns associated with fires or downdrafts associated with thunderclouds could radically change the wind direction for considerable distances (up to 6km).By and large, the authors bring a good dose of common sense to working with fires. And hopefully, whilst not minimising the danger of fires to those caught up in them, they give sound advice about managing them. When it makes sense to try and suppress the head fire and when it doesn't make sense. And if you are going to try and suppress the fire on the flanks, in Eastern Australia you should do this on the eastern or north eastern flank because this is the one that is most likely to break away when the wind changes. The normal pattern of wind shift during the day is anti-clockwise.The authors don't really (if at all) talk about climate change but clearly, climate change is going to mean more fires and more sever fires rather than less.I found myself wondering about the possibility of ploughing fuel....especially from forests into the soil or otherwise removing it from the surface. this would increase the carbon content of our soils and reduce the fuel load in the forests. Of course, it would be impossible in some terrain and the leaf litter shed during dry spells would soon replenish the fuel....but not by very much if the burying was done in systematic, wide firebreaks and repeated once in a while. Quite an interesting and useful book. I give it five stars.
Book preview
Grassfires - Phil Cheney
GRASSFIRES
Fuel, weather and fire behaviour
SECOND EDITION
Phil Cheney and Andrew Sullivan
© CSIRO 2008
All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests.
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry
Cheney, Phil, 1940–
Grassfires : fuel, weather and fire behaviour / Phil
Cheney, Andrew Sullivan.
2nd ed.
9780643093836 (pbk.)
Includes index.
Bibliography.
Grassland fires – Australia.
Grassland fires – Australia – Forecasting.
Fire weather – Australia.
Sullivan, Andrew, 1968–
632.180994
Published by and available from
CSIRO PUBLISHING
150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139)
Collingwood VIC 3066
Australia
Front cover image: Annaburroo experimental fire C113, 21/8/1986, NT.
Back cover images (from left to right): Annaburroo experimental fire B184, 15/8/1986, NT; Aerial view of Crase fire, ACT, 23/1/1975; Suppression on racecourse fire, ACT, 9/1/1965.
All cover images © CSIRO.
Set in 11/13.5 Adobe Minion
Edited by Adrienne de Kretser
Cover and text design by James Kelly
Illustrations by Angela Halpin, Tibor Hegedis and Andrew Sullivan
Typeset by Desktop Concepts Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Printed in China by 1010
The paper this book is printed on is certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) © 1996 FSC A.C. The FSC promotes environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.
Foreword
In Australia the term ‘bushfire’ is commonly used to describe fires burning in the landscape. Bushfires are classified as forest, scrub or grass fires, each with their own characteristics depending on the type of vegetation involved. Grassfires, exposed to the full force of the wind, sometimes cover huge areas if unimpeded, causing immense damage to stock, forage and fences. Bushfires have been the subject of reports and studies for at least 200 years. Although we have a good deal of general information about the major fires of the 20th century, the damage they caused and the weather and fuel conditions under which they burnt, we know far less about fires of lesser intensity which barely rated a mention in the press but have burnt over huge areas in parts of Australia and should form an important part of our fire history.
During the 20th century there were many organisational changes, starting shortly after Federation with the formation of bushfire brigades when farmers, graziers and local councils realised that collective rather than individual fire control efforts were essential. Embryo forest services also found that their protection activities warranted a closer study of fire behaviour under conditions ranging from those appropriate to the safe burning of firebreaks to the weather associated with destructive fires.
Although the dates of commencement vary from one region to another, the first half of the 1900s saw the formation, under various names, of bushfire committees charged with the co-ordination of effort in each state and territory. It is not possible to say for certain when science was first called upon to help those who bore the brunt of fireline activities. In the federal sphere, at least since the 1950s, fire research activities have been carried out by the Bureau of Meteorology, the Forestry and Timber Bureau, several divisions of CSIRO and state forestry agencies. Although many other organisations have contributed to knowledge of fire behaviour, the late Alan McArthur is acknowledged as the pioneer of this field. Since his death in 1978 there have been several major fire situations, including those of Ash Wednesday 1983, when extreme weather conditions have resulted in the level of fire danger exceeding that considered previously to represent the probable maximum.
It is certain that Alan McArthur would have welcomed the advances in understanding fire behaviour made by Phil Cheney and Andrew Sullivan with the help of their colleagues. While work is still proceeding to improve our knowledge of forest fire behaviour, this book offers the opportunity to incorporate into a general discussion the results of recent research into grassfires and their behaviour, and the changes to systems to predict grassfire spread and fire danger.
This work has been written for all throughout Australia who are concerned with fire in grasslands. The information includes advice for those who have not been through a major fire but need to prepare for the experience. It ranges from the discussion of the steps to be taken when investigating major fires to the means for deciding the nature and placement of firebreaks in grassland areas. There is something in this work for all who are concerned with the problems of bushfire protection, whether through individual study or, perhaps more realistically, through group discussion.
Harry Luke (1909–2000)
Sydney
September 1997
Contents
Foreword
Preface to the 1st edition
Preface to the 2nd edition
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction
Grassfires in Australia
A historical view
A more recent view
Predicting grassfire spread
2 Fuel
Tropical grasslands
Tussock grasslands
Hummock grasslands
Improved pastures
Crop lands
Comparison of grazed and ungrazed pastures
Grassland life cycles
3 Combustion of grassy fuels
The combustion process
Diffusion flames
Heat yield from grassy fuel
Moving grassfires
Fire types
Flame zone characteristics
Fireline intensity
4 Fire behaviour
Ignition
Fire growth
Fire shape
Fuel characteristics
Fuel moisture content
Wind speed
Slope
Fire behaviour in spinifex
5 Predicting fire spread
Fuel condition
Grass curing state
Dead fuel moisture content
Wind speed
Slope
CSIRO grassland fire spread prediction system
6 Local variation and erratic fire behaviour
Wind
Interaction of fuel moisture with relative humidity
Other factors that influence fire behaviour
7 Fire danger
Fire spread and fire danger prediction
8 Wildfires and their suppression
Past wildfire events
Suppression of grassfires under extreme conditions
Firebreaks
9 Grassfire investigation
Wind direction
Shape of the fire perimeter
Determining the origin
Power line ignitions
10 Safety: myths, facts and fallacies
The fire consumed all the oxygen around me and I could not breathe
Boiled alive
The fire creates its own wind
The fire was so hot it melted the engine block
The green grass burns faster
Exploding petrol tanks
Great balls of fire
Faster than a speeding bullet
The fire was equivalent to eight Hiroshimas
It can’t happen here
The red steer
Glossary
Bibliography and further reading
Index
Preface to the 1st edition
This book has been written to present our current knowledge of the spread and behaviour of grassfires in a way that is attractive and informative to rural land holders and members of rural bushfire brigades. The book includes new information that has been obtained from 15 years of research into the behaviour and spread of grassfires by the Bushfire Behaviour and Management Group of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products and recent work by other divisions of CSIRO and the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) in Western Australia. Most of this work has been published in the scientific literature but there has been no comprehensive account of grassfires since Alan McArthur published Weather and Grassland Fire Behaviour in 1966.
In 1985 Australian rural fire authorities sponsored the Bushfire Behaviour and Management Group to undertake a large field investigation into grassland fire behaviour to resolve some of the problems they were having with the predictions of fire spread using the McArthur Grassland Fire Danger meters. The research was conducted in the Northern Territory and much of the information and many of the illustrations used in this book come from those experiments.
The research resulted in a major finding that the speed of a fire was influenced not only by weather and fuel variables but also by the size and shape of the fire itself, and demonstrated the need for scaling factors to be introduced into fire science. This issue had been largely ignored by fire scientists around the world and now explains many of the difficulties that arose from using the results of small-scale experiments to predict the behaviour of wildfires.
In this book we have described the important variables that influence grassland fire behaviour and how these are combined to predict grassfire spread both in the pastoral areas of southern Australia and in the open forests and woodlands of northern Australia. The section on the behaviour and spread of fire in spinifex grasslands has been drawn largely from the work of Neil Burrows and his colleagues in CALM and is included to illustrate the differences that arise when fire spreads through discontinuous grassy fuel.
We are indebted to many people who have assisted both in the experiments and in the writing of this book. We would like to thank the Bushfires Council of the Northern Territory, which provided very considerable field support for the experimental burning, including preparation of the experimental areas and control of individual fires; the Country Fire Authority, Victoria and the Country Fire Service, South Australia, which provided financial support for the field experiments; and particularly the staff of the Bushfire Behaviour and Management Group who assisted in the running of the experiments, the preparation of scientific papers and finally in the preparation of this book.
The preparation of this book was made possible by a grant from the SA Great CFS Training and Research Foundation. We hope that we have been able to bring a better understanding of grassland fire behaviour and aspects of wildfire control to a wide cross-section of the rural community in southern Australia and in all other areas where grass is the dominant fuel type.
Phil Cheney
Andrew Sullivan
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products
Bushfire Behaviour and Management Group
Preface to the 2nd edition
It has been 11 years since the publication of the first edition of Grassfires: Fuel, Weather and Fire Behaviour. The book has been well received and used as training material and as a classroom text, then went out of print. Since its publication our work has focused on refining our understanding of the behaviour of forest fires. As a result, there is essentially no new material on the behaviour of grassfires.
However, the evolution of our understanding of fires in dry eucalypt forests has necessarily brought about a refinement of our understanding of the processes and mechanisms that influence the behaviour of bushfires in general, namely, combustion and the nature of the wind. Thus, when the opportunity arose to present a second edition of Grassfires, although there was no need to revise the basic fire behaviour information we did revise the discussion of the associated mechanics of grassland fire behaviour. We have also corrected a number of errors and general inadequacies in the first edition. We have added a new wildfire case history to bring the book up to date with some of the recent events in Australia and have expanded the discussion of the myths, facts and fallacies that surround grassfires to show how they may compromise fire safety.
Phil Cheney
Andrew Sullivan
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
Bushfire Dynamics and Applications
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to reprint or adapt copyrighted material:
Primary Industry South Australia, Forestry: Figure 8.6 from ‘Forest fires in South Australia on 16 February 1983 and consequent future forest management aims’ by A. Keeves and D.R. Douglas in Australian Forestry 46, 148–162 © 1983.
University of Adelaide, Department of Agronomy, Waite Institute: Figure 2.8 from Master of Agricultural Science Thesis ‘The growth, senescence and ignitability of annual pastures’ by R.T. Parrot © 1964.
Bureau of Meteorology: Figures 2.9 and 6.3 from ‘Meteorological Aspects of the Ash Wednesday Fires 16 February 1983’ by the Bureau of Meteorology © Commonwealth of Australia 1984, reproduced with permission.
International Association of Wildland Fire: Figures 3.2, 4.2 and 4.13 were first published in International Journal of Wildland Fire 12(1), 5(4) and 3(1) respectively © IAWF 2003, 1995 and 1993.
1
INTRODUCTION
Grassfires in Australia
Fire is one of the most important elements in the Australian landscape. Many Australian plants have evolved with fire as a necessary part of their life cycles. It is estimated that, on average, an area of more than 2.5 million hectares is burnt each year by wildfires – and much larger areas in extreme years. The figures are somewhat uncertain, however, partly because it is difficult to distinguish between wildfires and agricultural/cultural burning-off in the tropics. In 1992, for example, 7.4 million ha was burnt in the Northern Territory – 5.5% of the total land area but the fraction that was burnt by wildfires is unknown.
Most wildfires in Australia are called bushfires because they occur in rural areas or ‘the bush’. It is more accurate, however, to describe a wildfire by using the dominant fuel type involved, e.g. forest fire, scrub fire or grassfire.
Grass is the most common fuel type in Australia. Nearly 75% of the country is grassland of one species or another, with half of that area used for sheep or cattle grazing. Grasslands range in type from the vast open Mitchell grass plains of northern Australia to the buttongrass moors of western Tasmania. They may be open treeless plains or areas that have been cleared for agriculture or grazing, and include improved pastures and crop lands of southern Australia. Grasses are also the dominant fuel in woodlands and open forests with a history of regular burning. During years of exceptionally heavy rainfall, grasses can form a continuous sward through the normally arid and semi-arid interior of the continent.
Figure 1.1: Progressive suppression and mop-up on the southern flank of a fire at Binalong, NSW, 18 December 1990.
A historical view
Bushfires have been a major concern in Australia since Europeans arrived in the late 1700s. Repeated observations by early European explorers revealed that open forests and woodlands with a grassy understorey covered much of the land. They gained an impression of an annual conflagration during the fire season, caused by Aborigines. Historical accounts record that Aborigines used fire extensively for access, warfare, hunting, the promotion of edible plants, warmth, protection against snakes and insects and ‘cleaning up