Deep trouble

■ The global ocean has warmed unabated since 1970, taking up 90% of the excess heat in the climate system. Since 1993, the rate of ocean warming has more than doubled. Marine heatwaves ■ The global mean sea level is rising, accelerating in recent decades as a result of increasing rates of ice loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets as well as continued glacier melting and ocean expansion – as the ocean warms, water expands. ■ Since about 1950, many marine species have shifted in geographical range and season in response to ocean warming and other changes, such as the loss of oxygen. ■ Coastal ecosystems are all affected as marine heatwaves intensify, oceans acidify, oxygen levels drop, salt water intrudes and sea levels rise. ■ The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are projected to lose mass at an increasing rate throughout the 21st century and beyond. Large reductions in greenhouse-gas emissions in the coming decades would limit this process after 2050. ■ Over the 21st century, the ocean is expected to reach unprecedented conditions: increased temperatures, greater upper ocean stratification, further acidification and less oxygen. Changes will be smaller under scenarios with lower emissions. ■ The sea level continues to rise at an increasing rate. At many locations, extreme sea-level events that are historically rare – once a century in the recent past – are expected to occur frequently – at least once a year – by 2050 in all emission scenarios and especially in the tropics. ■ A decrease in the global biomass of marine animals and fisheries catches is expected over the 21st century from the ocean surface to the deep sea floor under all emission scenarios. ■ Marine organisms and ecosystems will be better able to adjust if we achieve lower emissions. Sensitive ecosystems such as seagrass meadows and kelp forests could be under threat if global warming exceeds 2°C above pre-industrial levels.